What is History? Jeffrey, Roll.no.539

The English word ‘History’is derived from the Greek word istoria meaning inquiry,research,exploration or information.In a broad sense history is a systematic account of the origin and development of humankind,a record of the unique events and movement in its life.It is an attempt to recapture however imperfectly,that which is,in a sense,lost forever.

History is the result of the interplay of man with his environment and with his fellowmen.man has always expressed himself in terms of certain basic needs such as food,clothing and shelter,social and political organization,knowledge of his environment and transmission of such knowledge,self-expression and religious and philosophical beliefs.such activities together make up the universal culture pattern.when man come to share the same institutions and ways of life they may be said to possess the same ‘culture’.Fundamental differences between groups are essentially differences in their cultures.Cultures do not remain wholly or isolated,but change over periods of time and interact with other cultures.Cultures interact both in peace and war.When a people come to have highly complex cultural pattern resting upon an intricate social organization and exerting wide control over nature,they may be said to have achieved what is called ‘civilization’.Civilization in all its varied aspects constitutes the subject matter of history.Such a cultural approach to history would make it a biography of Civilization.

History is the living part of man.It is the attempt made by man through centuries to reconstruct,describe and interpret his own past.In modern times,particularly from the period of Niebuhr and Ranke,it has come to mean the attempt to reconstruct the past in ‘a scholarly fashion,sticking to certain definite ruler of establishing fact,interpreting evidence,dealing with source material,etc.

In Mizo:

Saptawnga thumal ‘History’ lo pianchhuah dan chu Greek tawnga thumal ‘Istoria’ a ni a,chumi awmzia chu Zawhchianna,Zirchianna,Ngun leh zuala zawnchhuahna leh thil hriattharna lam a ni.A huap zau zawngin history chu Mihring te lo pianchhuah dan leh an hmasawn zel dan te leh an nun hmandan a thil mak leh dangdai tak thleng te,an chet dan engkim uluk leh fel fai taka lo vawngtha tlat tu ani.Hun liam tawh te kohkir tum leh na te pawh ani thei a.Amaherawhchu famkim lo tak chungin,a awmzia takah chuan kumkhua atan an bo hlen ta zawk si a ni.

 History in a rahchhuah ber chu Mihringin a mihringpui te vek nena an chen ho dan te,an in puih tawn dan te leh a chehvela thil awm te nena an inthlunzawm dan te a ti lang a.Mihring chuan a mamawh leh duhzawng ang te tilang chhuak thei in ei tur[chaw],thawmhnaw inbel tur leh tawmhim na tur in te leh chenpui tur,ram leh hnam inkaihhruaina tha tak leh a chehvela thil awm te hriatbelh zel turin thiamna sang zawk leh hriatzauna a mamawh a,chu a thiamna leh thil thar a hriat te chu midagte hnena hrilhchhawn a,thehdarh ve te,mahni nihna hai lan te, sakhuana thil ah leh thil bul lo intan dan zirchianna rin tlat te a ni.Chung thil tih chi hrang hrang chuan khawvel pumpuia hnam zia/nunphung a lantir a.Mihring tan an nun hmandan leh nun dan an in hrilh tawn a,an tih ho hian hnamzia inang  ti a koh anlo nita ani.A bulpui berah chuan khawvel mipui hu ho zinga an danglamna chu an hnamzia/nungphung ah a ni ber.Hnamzia/hnunphung reng reng chu a danglam ve zung zung lova,a mah in a mal tan ngai heklo.Amaherawh chu hun rei tak hnuah te danglam ve zelin midangte hnamzia leh nunphung te nen pawh alo in chawhpawlh ve ta zawk thin ani.Hnamzia leh nunphung hian Muanna leh Indonnna hna a thawk tawn reng a.Mipuiten an hnamzia leh nunphung uluk zawk leh chik tak a an zirchiana an zawm a,an hnam inkaihhruaina dan te an ngaipawimawh a,leilunga thil awmte a hlutna hria a khauh leh zual a venhimna zau zawk an neih hian hnam fing tak tih an lo hlawhchhuak ta thin a ni.

 History chu mihring hun kal tawh chanchin a ni a,mihring in kum tam tak chu a hun kal tawh te siamthat leh a,a awmzia diktak sawifiah tumin an lo bei tawh thin a.Tunlai hunah hi chuan,a bik takin Neibuhr leh Ranke te hunlai hian hun kal tawh te kha thiamna sang zawk leh tihdan thar tha zawk a siamthat a,heng dan khauh tak zawm chunga an thil hriat leh rindan te finfiah zela,an thil hmuhchhuah thar te a awmzia diktak hriatfiah zela,leilung thil reng reng a bulpui ber atanga zirchianna leh a dang tam tak te pawh telin….                                                                                                                                                                                        

           

The Annales School

The Annales School of historiography, widely considered as one of the most important developments in the twentieth-century history-writing was founded by Lucien Febvre and Mark Bloch in 1929. The movement has changed through time and the different incarnations are called 'generations'.

The First Generation

The Annales movement was named after the scholarly journal Annales d'histoire économique et sociale (Annales of Economic and Social History) edited by Mark Bloch and Lucien Febvre in 1929. The journal focuses more deeply on social and economic history rather than traditional approach to history on politics and government.

The Founders

The leaders of the Annales movement, Febvre and Bloch studied in University of Strasbourg. The inter-departmental cooperation during their university years led them to the idea of studying history using a holistic approach such as anthropology, economics, geography, psychology and sociology. This holistic approach separates the Annales movement from the empiric approach to history.

A New Historiography

The Annales movement was distinctive for its stance against the established empiric school of thought. Instead of focusing on politics and individuals, the historians of the first generation of the Annales school of thought focused on social groupings, collective mindsets and long-term continuities and changes. They did not only rely on primary documents, but made use of a wide range of sources, including maps, folklore and literature.

Opposition to Empiricism

Annales historians criticised positivism, which concentrated on the analysis of short periods and rebelled against empirical history which focused on politics, great individuals, and chronological events. Annales School also rejected dominance of Leopold von Ranke’s scientific-nationalist method.

Mentalités

The Annales movement was also distinctive for the increased attention paid to the mindsets of entire groups, known as mentalités. Lucien Febvre was the first historian to call for a study into the history of emotions in 1941. He believed that 'the emotional life [is] always ready to overflow the intellectual life'.

The Second Generation

Fernand Braudel’s History of Mediterranean world in 16^th Century is a seminal work of Annales school. He emphasized geography as determining factor and looked at history on a wider scale- ‘total’ and ‘global’ history.

The Third Generation

The third generation of Annales historians branch out in their interests and approaches to the study of history. This includes interest on gender studies the female historians by Christiane Klapisch, Mona Ozouf and others who studied a wide range of subjects including family, labour and women. Many members of this school of thought tried to link the traditional Annales historiography to the American trends of economic history, popular culture, psychohistory and symbolic anthropology.

Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie

One of the foremost historians of the latest generation of Annales historians is Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie. He used interrogation transcripts to reconstruct the village. Also has written on the history of climate and its effect.

Each generation of the Annales school of history made important contributions to the study of history and each branched into innumerable sub-sections which assist in covering a wide range of human history. The Annales movement was revolutionary in its time and took a radical new approach to the study of history.

RELATIONSHIP OF HISTORY WITH GEOGRAPHY AND SOCIOLOGY Hmangaihzuali 6th semester B.A Roll no- 561

            All intellectual disciplines are interrelated. If we turn the pages of history we can give enough materials for their relationship between one another.

 HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGY

             History and Sociology are closely liked. Sociology consist of some anthropology, ancient law, study of primitive social customs and habits and of social institutions. But the two disciplines are concerned with the study of man in the society. The two disciplines differ only in their approach. It is topical rather than chronological.

            The subject matter of history, sociology, civics, political science, etc. are all within the scope of sociology. Sociology studies the development of the human society at large. It aims at developing man into an ideal social being, History studies the development of society under various periods and under various conditions. The teaching of history should invariability be guided by the knowledge of sociology. Similarly, study and teaching of sociology also requires a lot of knowledge of history . For sociology certain things became very important like the role of valves, norms, role of conflict and consensus, development of different social units etc. A historian is also concerned with these because he studies the development of these social institutions. But a historians perspective is much wide and broader than a sociologist because he has always to generalize that they have to base their work on history, without historical perspective, their work becomes limited and narrow.

            According to H.E. Barnes ,’Sociology is the basic social science which can hope to give a generalized view of the social process and of social causation. Like the historians, the sociologists adopted the methods like the sampling techniques and questionnaires. In short sociology is more concerned with the general laws about the present whereas history with the unique features of the past.

                                        HISTORY  AND GEOGRAPHY

            History is intimately correlated to geography and in the 50’s the two subject were taught together. They are twin subject one stress time and other  emphasise on space. Both are concerned with the interplay of human and physical factors. Various factors taken into consideration are physical conditions of the life of man, climate, means of communication, etc. All these factors determine the direction of human life and history ceded by man and his activities. Truly speaking, historical study without geographical background would be inaccurate and unscientific. Mans mode of living, dieting and dressing, etc. are all determined by his physical environment.

            There are some histories like military, religion, etc which cannot be studied without the peculiarities of geography. The first thing we have to do it we have to place the people (society) in a particular geographical area. People first have to be located geographically. It is difficult to study history without this. The climate, soil, physical features also affect the way of life of the people. It affects the entire social organization so the geographical location of people definitely determines the entire pattern of life of those people. Geographical setting has to be studied in order to understand the life and culture of the people. Historians sought professional help from other social scientist in order to get the geographical settings of their historical works. One important fact was the area of geography study to the historical features which influence historical events. Geography thus have a close relationship with history and historians have to ground themselves with the geographical realities. Therefore, there can have no study of history without any geographical tools.

            The Annalist school of French historians which developed in the 1920’s (marc Bloch and Lucian febure) their early works are geographical works rather than historical works. Geographical  setting has to be studied in order to understand the life of culture of the people

            All the countries in the world have been greatly helped by the geographical factors. According to K.M Panikkar the Himalayas contributed very much to shape the life of the country. No doubt the geographical discoveries that took place during the 15^th and 16^th centuries altered the history of mankind.

            Finna, zirna engpawh mai hi an in kungkaih vek a, history phek kan han keu hian thildang nena an in kungkaihna tawk fang sawitur kan nei thei ang.

HISTORY LEH SOCIOLOGY;

            History leh sociology te hi an in thlunzawm nghet hle a. Sociology ah hian anthropology te, hmasang dan, hun hmasa a, hnam chindan an habit leh khawtlang zirna chanchin te kan zir thin a. Tin, heng subject history leh sociology ah te hian vantlang nun a mihring khawsak dank an zir thin a ni. Danglamna leh an inan lohna sawi tur ting erawh a awm ve a, sociology hi chu hun indawt dan chhuina lam nilo in thil thleng lai mek leh vantlang ngaihven lam thil zirna a ni.

            Heng subject history, sociology, civics, political science leh a dang te pawh hi sociology huang chhung ah hian an awm vek a. sociology hian mihring society lo than chhoh zel dan a zir zel a, he zirna hian mihring khawsak phung diktak leh than lenna zirna kawngah hma nasa takin a la a, history ah pawh period hrang hrang leh dinhmun hrang hrang in todelh dank an zir ve bawk thin. Chuvang in history zirtur leh zirtir tur chuan sociology lama hriatna leh thiamna neih a ngai a, sociology zir tur leh zirtir tur pawhin history hriat angai ve bawk a ni. Sociology zir tur chuan mihring ngaihhlut zawng te, kan khawsak phung a thil pawimawh em em te zir chian a, hriat chian hi thil pawimawh tak a ni a, Historian te pawh in heng thil te hi an zir angai vet ho bawk, chutichuan history leh sociology te chu kan zir kawp a, belhchian an inti dawl tawn thin a ni. Historian ngaihtuahna leh an thlu`k zawng chu sociologist aiin a zau zawk a, a chhan chu historian te hian mihring hun kaltawh an tun hun leh hun lo la awm tur te an vaihma vek mai a, sociologist te hnathawh leh thilzir hi history a in nghat vek a ni a, hunk al tawh thlir tel chuan an thil zir te hi a fiah tawklo in belhchian a dawllo a ni.

            H.E Barnes a chuan sociology hi social science bulthut a ni a social process leh social causation te zawng zawng min  hriatthiam tir a, historians te ang bawkin, sociologist te hian sampling techniques leh questionaries method s te an hmang thin a ni. A tawi zawng a sawi chuan sociology ah chuan dan panngai tak a kan thlurbing lain history ah erawh hunk al tawh a thil thleng danglam tak tak te kan sawi tel thin.

                                        

HISTORY LEH GEOGRAPHY

            History leh Geography hi subject in unau tak a ni a, 50’s bawr vel ah phei kha chuan heng  subject te hi zir dun a ni thin a ni. An pahnih hian phi rang mai niin pakhat in hun chungchang uar tak a a thlur bing lain pakhat leh chu hmun leh thil thleng zirna a ni. Mihring te leh leilung in kungkaih dan heng subject ah te hian kan zir thin. Hun hrang hrang a min hriattir a tum ber lain geography chuan mihring te chenna leh environment chhuina a ni vet hung a ni. History leh geography te hian mihring nun leh a chhehvel thil ten en inlaichinna nghet tak an nei a. History kan chhuina ah geography hi a kil a lung tangkai tak a ni a, thilthleng tawhte tifiahtu niin zirchianna ti belhchian dawltu a ni fo thin. Chutiang bawkin history a thil thlengte hi a hunlai sik leh sa in biak pawhna leh thildang dang chhuichian nan a tangkai bawk a ni. Diktak a sawi chuan geographical background neilo a history zir chu a dik famkim lo a, belhchian a dawllo tlangpui a ni. Mihring nundan, ei leh in, thawmhnaw leh thildang te hi an physical environment in a thunun vek bawk a ni.

            History thenkhat heng military, religion, etc te hi geography tello a zir theih a nilo a. Ahmasa berah chuan mihring (society) te chuan an chenna turin geographical location hrelo a mihring chanchin zir chian chu a harsa hle ang. Climate, soil leh physical features te hian mihring te nunphung a khawih danglam a, an geographical location a zirin khawtlang kalphung hnam zia rang leh eizawnna thleng in danglamna a awm thei bawk. Historians te hian an historical works a geographical settings an neih theihnan social scientist dangte puihna anal thin a, historian te hian climate leh leilung pianzia in history a thilthleng te a thunun dan zirtur in rim tak in an thawk thin a ni. Geographical tools tello chuan history hi a zir theihloh ti ila kan sawisual awmlo e.

            Annales school, French historians Marc Bloch leh Lucian Febuse ten 1920’s vela an rawn develop a an hmalakna hmasa ber chu historical work nilo in geographical work a ni a, mihring nun leh culture zir tur chuan an ram leilung chanchin a hriat a ngaih tlat vang a ni.

            Khawvel a ram zawng zawng te hi an ram leilung pianhmang hian nasa takin a tanpui a. K.M Panikara chuan Himalaya hian a rama chengte nun hi kawng tamtak ah a thunun a ni ati. 15^thleh 16^th century vela geographical discoveries te khan mihring te history hi rinhlelh na tur a  awm miahlo in a ti danglam a ni.

REFERENCES: 

1). Jayapalan.N, Historiography, Atlantic publishes and distributors (p) Ltd, 2003.

2). www.Puchistory.Blogspot.com

ANCIENT CHINESE HISTORIOGRAPHY V.L.DINPUII R/N-568

                   

1.Circumstances Favourable for the Growth of Historiography in Ancient china.

          Chinese civilization has an abiding taste for history. China has been called “the paradise of historians”. Chinese histiography develop independent of all outside influenc. Certain circumstances did much to shape the chinese mentality and dispose it towards the practice of history.First, from very early times  the recording of past events was regarded as important for writing itself seems to have been thought by the Chinese as a way of communicating with the divine order. Every temple had its archivist who looked after such documents as a register, family trees, records of contracts, and decision of the oracles.  Secondly,there was in ancient china a growing movement which we may label ‘rationalist’ , which brought incidental support to history by insisting on the ‘immortality’ that men might secure in the memory of future ages. Under the Tung dynasty from the early 7^th century there emerged a history office which was an organ of the government ,and history became an important subject ,such in brief factors which made history the most popular and respectable form of literature in china.

          2.Some chinese historian

               Confucius (c.551-478BC)

Confucius stressed  the importance of history in promoting reverence for the past and respect for the examples set by ancestors. The three subject which formed the curriculum for his pupils were history, poetry and the rule of propriety. He left behind him, apparantly written and edited by his own hand ,the Five Ching or Canonical Books which are deemed to constitute the surviving textual reflection of the golden age. Two of his books-the fourth and the fifth- are historical works. The fourth, the Ch’un Ch’ieu or Spring and Autumn Annals, is abrief chronical of the reigns of twelve dukes of Confucius’s own state of conduct,the Annals was also a guide to moral conduct . In the fifth, the Shu-Ching or Book of History or Book of Documents –which is a collection of royal speeches, edicts, memorials, feudal documents,etc.          

             Szuma Ch’ien(c.145-85 B.C)

Szuma Ch’ien was the son of Szuma Tan,the grand historian –astrologer at the court of Han emperor, Wu. It was his father dying wish that his son complete the historical record he had begun. Szuma submitted to the worst of penalties-castration-in lieu of death so that he might live to complete the Shih chi. His masterpiece the Shih chi (Historical Record) ran to 526,000 Chinese characters patiently scratched on bamboo tablets.

         The Shih chi is the history of the world as known by its author. Its 130 chapters cover the history of China and a number of lands on its borders from the time of the legendary Yellow Emperor to Szuma Chien’s own times-a period of 3,000 years.Szuma chien refuses to swallow the information that is unbelievable.He organized his great history into five sections: 1.Basic Annals the emperors; 2. Chronological Tablets; 3.Eight chapters or treaties, intnded to be of particular use to officials-one each on rites,music,the piych-pipes,the calendar,astrology,imperial sacrifices,water courses and political economy; 4.Annals of the Feudal Nobles; and 5.Biographies ofEminentMen.

      Its was through Szuma Chien Historical Record that Chinese histiography came to exert a profound influence on Japanese,Korean and Vietnamese history writing.

                     Pan Ku (AD 32-92)

Pan ku, the Chinese historian who lived in the first century AD,followed Szuma Chien’s pattern of organizaton for his History of the Former Han Dynasty. But in writing the history  only of the former Han Dynasty, Pan KU was unknowingly setting a pattern himself. Thereafter, it became a practice for each dynasty to compile historical materials for its successor. The Diaries of Activity and Repose reproduced the utterances of the emperor and the business that he transacted, day by day. These were abridged so that when the emperor died ,there emerged the Veritable Record, a survey of his whole reign. When a dynasty came to an end ,a commprehensive account of the former dynasty would be written under the suceeding dynasty. Such Standard Histories were produced for nearly two thousand years on the pattern set initially by Pan Ku.

                    Szuma Kuang (AD 1019-1086)

The chronical form and the role of the individual historian reached their culmination in Szuma Kuang who attempted again a universal history of Chin of the Szuma Chien model. Kuang ransacked three hundred sources and the resultant material formed the basis of his Tzu-chih t’ung-chien .The book is magisterial survey of almost fourteen centuries down to the author’s own time.-from the late Chow to the beginning of Sung periods. Didactic in the extreme and given to much “praise and blame”, this travesty of Szuma Kuang became established as the best known history textbook in china.

3. A critical Assessement of Chinese Historiography

No nation has producted such voluminious, contionus, varied and accurate  records so long past as China-------imperial history , local and dynastic histories, gazetters, chronicles on the dependies of China, histories of non-Chinese peoples within China, histories of foeieng relation, and specialist histories on different aspect of Chinese life.  Yet, European historian and philosophers of history did not condecent to consider China even for purpose of comparision in matters historical. Marx’s theuoryof the Asiatic mode of production erroneously held that China suffered from the system of producton and governmental despotism peculiar to asia. A grea part of so rich a crop of historical literature

                                    Textual Criticism

The ancient Chinese historian excelled in textual criticism historical writings of the pre-Confucian days had survived and the genuineness and the textual accuracy of those that did survive had become a matter of controversy. As a result of the vicissitudes that had been sufferd by these texts, these emerged a subtle technique of textual criticism which developed greatly.

                                Internal criticism

Butthis finesse in external criticism did not lead to like finesse in external criticism. Chinese historian seems to have accepted as true  any statement in chronicles or documents if it had not been contradicted anywhere. Sometimes if they opted for one or two documents, they would give no reasons for doing so and would leave the rejected documents unmentioned . Even when satisfied about the genuineness of a document, they did not care to interpret it in terms of the people or situation behind it.

REFERENCES

E.Sreedharan,A textbook of Historiography 500 Bc to AD 2000,Orient Longman Pvt LTd,New Delhi, 2004.

Chinese historiography hi historiography dangte laka tla hrang leh tihdan bik nei  tak a ni. A hmasaber ah chuan, thil hlui dahthat hi Chinese te chuan an thlah te zel hriat atan a hrilhlawkna tha berah an ngai a,temple zawng zawng ten an thil pawimawh dah tha tu tur archivist an nei vek bawk a ni.Heng archivist- astrologer te hian Emperor Court-ah hmun pawimawh tak chang in emperor secretary atan puar ak ber a ni bawk.A pahnihna ah chuan, ancient Chinese hun lai hian rationalist hi rawn thang lian em em in, hun lo la awm tur a mite rilru ah thi thei lo ang a ngaih tir an tum tlat a ni.

2.Chinese Historian te :-Confurius

            Confucius a chuan hun kal tawh a thil thleng te hmer bik in a ngai pawimawh a ni.An thlah tu ten an thil lo hnutchiah chu zah hi a ni.Zirtirtu chuan an ram in a thil lo tawn tawh te chu a pawimawh ber a ngai in a naupang te chu an hnam thawnthu hmangin a chawk phur thin a ni.

                        SZuma CHien

               Szuma Tan a fapa nnin apa thi turin a historical lo ziah tan tawh chhunzawm turin achah a, mahse a ziah lai hian buaina tam tak a hmachhawn a amaherawh chu a record bu Shih Chi cju a thihhma ngei a ziah zawh a tum ruh hle ani. Chinese calendar siam chhuak tu hmasa ber niin, apa kuthnu thil hi angaisang ber bawk a ni.

                        Pan KU

                  Chinese historian zinga mi niin Szuma CHien a ziah dan zulzuiin a lehkhabu “History of the former Han Dynasty” chu a chhuah ve a , chutatang chuan dynasty tin te chuan an thlahtu te nundang phung leh engkim chhuilet a an tan history ziah chu an tih makmawh a ngaih a nit a ani.

                            Szuma Kuang

                      Thil inchherchhuan dan a thil thleng tawh a mimal ngaihdan a Szuma Kuang an a lehkhabu “Universal history of China” ah chuan szuma Chien a model a beihna chuan a vawrtawp a thleng a. Thil bul chhuina 300 chuang chu a chik nasa zual a chumi tanga a thil hmuhchhuah chu a lehkhabu “Tzu chih lung chien” tih ah a dah a, he lehkhabu hi kum zabi 14 hun lai a mi leh a ziaktu hun lai ngei  a mi leh Chow hun tawp atanga Sung hun tir a thil thleng te an ni

                           Textual Criticism (thuchanglam sawiselna)

                       Ancient Chinese historians te am thuchanglam danah duhkhawp lohna a awm a. Confucian hun lai hma a thil thleng diktak te chu a tha in inhnialna chawk chhuak nasa bawk ani. Hetiang hnialna chhuahna tamtak avang hian  CHinese textual hi thil har take maw fing tak a ngaih ani.

                             Internal criticism

                          Heng textual sawiselna hian achhung lam bik tak tak duhkhawp lohna apumpelh chuang lo ani. Chinese historians te chuan an thil pawimawh dah that te chu thalo leh thil felhlel leh inmillo awm pawh in an hrelo a mahse , thil hrilhfiah  theihloh an neih chuan dahtha in tihzawm torah an ngai lo a,chutiang documents chu sawichhuah loh ah an tlak thin a ni. A tak a thil thleng ni tih hre mahse tih rik loh atha zawk ah an ngai ani.

REFERENCES

E.Sreedharan, A textbook of Historiography 500BC to AD 2000, Orient Longman Pvt. Ltd,New Delhi., 2004

History and Geography/ Sociology

History leh Geography inzawmnna :

History leh Geography te hian inzawmna thuk tak an neia, chu inzawmna chu Immanuel Kant hian hetiang hian a sawifiah ani, “hun sawifiahna hi history ani a, tichuan hmun sawifiahna hi geography ani....History chu thawnthu anga sawi/chiar ani a, geography erawhchu  a sawifiahna ani. Geography leh history hian kan thil hmuh leh hriatna zawng zawng a khaikhawm ani.

Geography leh History hian kan thilhmuh leh hriatna zawng zawng hi a khaikhawm ani.History  zirnaah hian geography hian influence a nei nasa em em a. History a geographical influence nemghettu chu ram physical formation hi a ni. Chumi entirna chu Britain te, Japan leh Greece te coastline rem lo hi a ni awm e. Hei hian an navy a ti chak in an building sak vel pawh a ti awlsam a ni.

Rennaissance hi a geographical factor avangin Italy atangin a rawn in tan a ni.

R.V. Nadkari chuan a lekhabu ziah ‘Rise of the Marathas’ ah chuan Maratha ho chu an ram leilung avangin kum zabi 17^th lain an rawn din chhuah thei phah a ni a ti a.

Himalaya leh Assam ramhnuai vel avangin foreigner ho in India chu North-west atangin an run phah thin a. K.M. Panikkar a chuan ‘Himalaya hian ram hmel hmang nasa takin a siam a ni a ti a.

Dik tak chuan, ‘khawvela ram zawng zawng  hi an geographical factors in nasa takin an tanpui a. Gobi leh Mongolian thlaler leh Himalaya tangkawp chuan china chu a tih hran phah a ni.

History leh Sociology

History leh sociology hi a in hnaih em em a. Sociology chuan anthropology, ancient law, hmanlai customs te, an nunchang leh an social institutions te a huam a. Mahse an pahnih hian society zirna an huam v eve a. An pahnih hian an approach ah chiah an in anglo a. Sociology chu chronological ni lo in topical a ni thung a. E.H. Carr chuan ‘what is History’ tih a ziah ah chuan ‘sociology chu history anga zirna peng pakhat a nih dawn chuan a tlangpui leh danglam bikna ah te a in sawrbing deuh bik tur a ni a. Mahse a dynamic bawk tur a ni a, society bo tawh/ ral tawh te hmasawnna leh an nunphung intlak dan zirna te pawh a huam vek ang a . chung zawn zawng hnuah chuan, E.H. Carr  chuan, sociological history leh historical sociology a tam zawh poh leh an pahnih tan a tha dawn a. An pahnih ramri hi zau takin i hawn sak ang u.

Sociology chu mi chi hrang hrang awmkhawmte nundan zirna hi a ni a. Sociology chuan nungchang te, pi pute nunphung leh a dang tam tak te sawifiah hi a tum a ni a.

H.E. Barnes a chuan ‘sociology’ chu social science bul thut, social process leh social causation te thlir dan tlangpui mi hrilhtu ani a ti a. Historian tho angin, sociologist ho chuan zawhna zawh leh thil encchin dan method te an ti ve a. A tawi dan berah chuan sociology chu tunlai thil thleng (present) ah a in sawrbing a, history chu hun kal tawh(past) ah a insawr bing thung a ni. 

Sources of history Lalrinawma Hnamte Roll no:559

                                              

                                            

                                                PRIMARY SOURCES

Primary sources are original materials that have not been altered or distorted in any way.Information for which the writer has no personal knowledge is not primary, although it may be used by historians in the absence of a primary source. In the study of history as an academic discipline, a primary source (also called original source or evidence) is an artifact, a document, a recording, or other source of information that was created at the time under study. It serves as an original source of information about the topic.

Similar definitions are used in library science, and other areas of scholarship, although different fields have somewhat different definitions. In journalism, a primary source can be a person with direct knowledge of a situation, or a document written by such a person.

Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on, or build upon primary sources. Generally, accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight are secondary.A secondary source may also be a primary source depending on how it is used. For example a memoir would be considered a primary source in research concerning its author or about his or her friends characterized within it, but the same memoir would be a secondary source if it were used to examine the culture in which its author lived. "Primary" and "secondary" should be understood as relative terms, with sources categorized according to specific historical contexts and what is being studied.

In scientific literature, a primary source is the original publication of a scientist's new data, results and theories. In political history, primary sources are documents such as official reports, speeches, pamphletsIn the history of ideas or intellectual history, the main primary sources are books, essays and letters written by intellectuals.

•          "The definition of a primary source varies depending upon the academic discipline and the context in which it is used.

•          In the humanities, a primary source could be defined as something that was created either during the time period being studied or afterward by individuals reflecting on their involvement in the events of that time.

•          In the social sciences, the definition of a primary source would be expanded to include numerical data that has been gathered to analyze relationships between people, events, and their environment.

•          In the natural sciences, a primary source could be defined as a report of original findings or ideas. These sources often appear in the form of research articles with sections on methods and results."

History as an academic discipline is based on primary sources, as evaluated by the community of scholars, who report their findings in books, articles and papers. Arthur Marwick says "Primary sources are absolutely fundamental to history." Ideally, a historian will use all available primary sources that were created by the people involved at the time being studied. In practice some sources have been destroyed only eyewitness reports of an event may be memoirs, autobiographies, or oral interviews taken years later. Sometimes the only evidence relating to an event or person in the distant past was written or copied decades or centuries later. Manuscripts that are sources for classical texts can be copies of documents.

SECONDARY SOURCES

In scholarship, a secondary source is a document or recording that relates or discusses information originally presented elsewhere. A secondary source contrasts with a primary source, which is an original source of the information being discussed; a primary source can be a person with direct knowledge of a situation, or a document created by such a person.

Secondary sources involve generalization, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, or evaluation of the original information. Primary and secondary are relative terms, and some sources may be classified as primary or secondary, depending on how it is used. An even higher level, the tertiary source, such as an encyclopedia or dictionary, resembles a secondary source in that it contains analysis, but attempts to provide a broad introductory overview of a topic.

Many sources can be considered either primary or secondary, depending on the context in which they are used. Moreover, the distinction between primary and secondary sources is subjective and contextual, so that precise definitions are difficult to make.For example, if a historical text discusses old documents to derive a new historical conclusion, it is considered to be a primary source for the new conclusion, but a secondary source of information found in the old documents.

Whether a source is regarded as primary or secondary in a given context may change, depending upon the present state of knowledge within the field. For example, if a document refers to the contents of a previous but undiscovered letter, that document may be considered "primary", since it is the closest known thing to an original source, but if the letter is later found, it may then be considered "secondary".

Primary source

Primary source chu hmanrua original engtin maha la tihdanglam loh emaw khawih danglam loh tihna a ni. A ziak tupa ina mimal ngaihdan a neihlohna information chu primary a ni lo a , nimahsela historian chuan primary source a awm lohin a hmang thin tho a ni. Academic discipline atanga history kan zir dan  chuan primary source chu thil dik tak, document emaw, thil record emaw, a hunlaia mite ngei ina information min hnutchhiah te hi ani, primary source chu kan duh topic atan a original information kan neihna hnar hi a ni kan ti thei awm e.

Primary source te hi secondary source atanga thlei hran a ni a. Atlangpui thu in, thil dik tak ziah chhawn leh a ziak chhawngtu ina hamthatna a neih ang chi hi secondary source chu a ni a. A hman dan a zirin secondary source hi primary source ani thei bawk a ni. Entirnan:-  miin a chanchin emaw a thiante nungchang research atana a ziah chu primary source a ni a, nimahsela a ziaktu culture zirchianna/sawifiahna a nih chuan secondary source a ni. Primary leh secondary source te hi a inkungkaih tlat thung a ni.

Primary source te hi a hmanna a zirin chi hrang hrang a then an ni a:-

•          Thu le hla lamah chuan, thil a hunlaia mite ngei ina an siam emaw mi midang hnena va awm ve ngeiina a siamte hi primary souce a ni a.

•          Social sciences a chuan, primary source chu mihringte chu an chhehvela thilte nena an inlaichin dan huapzo/ ko khawm thei turin a zauh hret thung a ni.

•      Natural sciences- ah chuan primary source chu ngaihdan le thil original an hnuhchhiah  te hi ani.

History hi scholars te thil hmuchhuah, lekhabu te, articles leh papers ah te a in nghat a . Arthur Marwich a chuan, “primary source hi history innghahna bulpui ber a ni”, a ti a. A nihna takah chuan, historian chuan primary source an zir hunlaia ziah zawng zawng chu a hmang vek tur a ni a. Source then khat chu tih chhiat tawh emaw, autobiography emaw, kum tam tak kal ta a interview te pawh ani thei vek a ni.

Secondary source

Zirchianna lamah chuan secondary source chu document emaw, thil record emaw chutiang lam pang information original khawia mi pawh hi a huam vek a. Secondary leh primary source te khaihkhin nan chuan, information sawiho tawh hnu hi secondary kan ti mai ang a, primary source chu document emaw information a hunlaia mi ngei ina a siam hi ani.

Secondary source chuan, original information analyse, synthesis, emaw interprete ang chi te hi a huam vek a. Primary leh secondary  source hi thil inkungkaih tlat an ni a, source thenkhat chu a hmanna a zirin primary leh secondary source ah te then a ni thin a, chulo pawh tertiary source a awm leh a , chu erawh chu encyclopedia emaw dictionary te a huam leh thung a ni.

Sources tam tak chu a thu leh a hmanna a zirin primary leh secondary source ah te then a ni thin a. Subjective leh contextual a thliar mai an nih avangin a definition chiah hi sawi a har hle a ni. Entirnan:- document hlui tawh tak historical conclusion siamthat hnu chhuah nana discuss a nih chuan primary source a ni a mahse document hlui ah chuan secondary source of information hmuhchhuah a ni leh thung a ni.

Kan awmna hmun a zirin source thenkhat chu primary leh secondary a then a ni thin a. Entirnan:- letter hun rei tak hmuchhuah loha awm chu primary source a ni a, nimahsela a hnu daiha hmuchhuah a nih chuan secondary source a ngaih a ni.

Reference:-

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary source

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary source

WESTERN HISTORIOGRAPHY- Submitted by Lalduhawma Roll No.- 1201 BA 560 6th Sem.

         There is no single,linear,progressive history of western art history;rather there are several parallel traditions of writing about art,some  of them truly historical.Indeed,it is hard to separate the history of art history from the history of art theory;the historiographic boundary in relation to the art history is somewhat blurred. Never theless,if we adopt the working definition that art history is a historical account of the existence and form of works of art and if we bear some important contextual points in mind, a historiographic analysis of art writing is possible.

  

 The first necessary cognizance is of the common ground between writing about art and writing about other historical phenomena,for example,the adoption by art history of models used by historians to describe religion or diplomacy;second,anawareness of the links between historical writing and the current practice of art itself(Gaehtgens 1990 and Belting1987);third, a recognition of the actual state of knowledge,in the4 senses of access or archaeology,for example,how much of an artist’s work is known and available for study, what is the state of its conservation and restoration; fourth, an awareness of the role of technology,to capture a memory of a work of art, by sketching or using a camera, to reproduce a work of art or overcome the difficulty of understanding colour or paint via a line engraving (Haskell 1987 ;1976  ;168ff. ;Lloyd  1975 ); fifth, an appreciation of the political context for historical discussions about art, since its high symbolic potential,understood since aniquity, means  that  art’s  history is not written in ideologically neutral terms.

   

 It was not until the time of the greeks that historiography, the  writing of organic history,emerged.The compilations of the logographoi in the 6th century B.C were organized records.It is with some justice,however,that Herodotus is considered the first historian,because in his work appears the conscious desire to record all the significant and noteworthy circumstances surrounding aset of events and motivating the action of people  in thgose events.Herodotus was remarkable, too  for the scope of his interest,he recorded myths, describe and customs,and made speculation .He used much unverified information, however, and failed to differentiate clearly between fact and fable.

 The second  great greek historian ,Thuydides, was of a different stamp.In writing the history of the Peloponnesian war he limited himself to matters of staete and war; he tried to establish chronology and fact  with some exactitude, avoiding the digression of Herodotus; though his attempt at writing a factual and impartial history was not entirely successful , he wrote a grave work,conveying the lessons he drew from his story. The third of the great Greek historians,Xenophon was more devoted to the purely storytelling aspect of history.

 In the foregoing account we have discussed the beginning and the development of historiographical tradition in medieval western world. In medieval Europe,the writing of history  began with church histories. These histories  had aconcept of time which was changeless because  it was the divine  time.Gradually,,however ,there was a change in the concept of time.Influenced by the pre-Christian  tradition of history writing  the historian began to think of time in more temporal terms,as a measurable sequences .The change in thinking made possible the use of chronology to write history. Contacts with other regions such as the Byzantine  and the Arab world brought different influences from which also the medieval European historiography benefited.

                                WESTERN HISTORIOGRAPHY

  Khawthlang ram art history hi thuhmun,in ang tlang a awm lo ,art history ziah dan tam tak a awm avangin khawi hi nge art history dik tak ni a, khawi hi nge alem ni ang tih thliar hran hi thil harsa tak a ni.Khami art kha ahun lai a thil thleng tak tak an ziah  a nih leh nih loh hriat nan chuan historiographic analysis atih theih  a ni. A tih theih dan te chu:

 A hriat theih dan hmasa ber chu lem ziak ah khan khami hun lai a thil thleng kha alang tel em tih a ni .Entirnan-Historian in alem ziah khan  khami hun lai sakhua emaw politics lam hawi alantir em? Pahnihna ah chuan hman lai a an lem ziah dan leh tunlaia an milem ziah dan in inzawmna aneih leh neh loh hriatna hi ani.A hriat theih dan pathumna ah chuan lem ziak tu kha hriat ahlawh em??A  lem ziah te kha engzat chiah nge zir chian atan awm?Dah that tlak a awm em?Palina ah chuan a lem ziah emaw thlalaka athla lo lake maw a ni.Hei hian lem ziahna rawng emaw a chei nan a rawng an hman hriatchian lohna lak ata min veng thei ani.A tawp ber ah chuan a ziak tuin a hun lai politics a ngaihdan a ziak lang tel tur a ni.Hei hian a ziaktu khan pawm zawng/ ngaihdan nei lem lo a ziak ani lo tih a hriat theih a ni.

 Greek- ho hun lai atangin thil thleng felfai taka ziak a dahthat hi an lo ching chho tan a.Herodotus a hi Historian hmasa ber ang a ngaih a ni, a chhan chu ahun lai a thil pawimawh leh hriat tur zawng zawng ziaka a dah that vang a ni.Mahse information verify loh tam tak a ziah avangin a thu ziah hi a lem nge a tak tih thliarhran a har hle.

 Greek historian lar tak Tydides vet hung chuan thu dik leh belhchian ngam chauh ziah a tum luat ah Peloponnesian indona tih aziah lai khan khawpuia thil thleng leh indona lampang chauh a ziak a ,nimahsela a hlawhtling lem lo .Greek historian tho Xenophon vet hung chuan history hi thawnthu ziah dan kal hmangin a ziak thin.

 A tir lamah khan engtin nge khawthlang ramin history an ziah tan dan leh hma an lo sawn chhoh zel dank an sawi tawh a.Medieval Europe ah chuan church history an ziak hmasa bera, heng history hian hun concept a nei a,he church history ziah hun lai hi hun thinghlim a nih avangin hun hi thlak  theih a ni lo.Nimahsela, hun concept chu a danglam tial tial a, hun chu thil the theih angina ngaih chhoh  a lo ni ta a,Hemi a ngaihdan a danglamna lo thleng avang hian hun chu history ziah nan a thil pawimawh deuh a lo  ni ta a.Sakhaw dang Byzantine leh Arab te hian Medieval Europe ho history ziah nan a tanpui nasa  hle a, European history hian hlawkna tam tak a neih phah a ni.

* Reference:

1). Bentley, Michael, 'Companion to Historiogrphy', Park Square, Milton Park, Adingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN,1997.