Q. Discuss methods of British used to establish their rule In India?- Bill Lalmalsawma

When the industrial revolution started in Europe small states did not have sufficient raw materials for their industries, or markets for their finished goods. These countries now started looking for markets in Asia and Africa. England succeeded in controlling trade with India and established the East India Company in 1600. This company was supported by the British government. With its help England was able to extend her territorial frontiers to the Indian subcontinent. The first factory was established at Surat in 1613.Their most important settlement on the southern coast was Madras where they built a fortified factory called Fort St. George. This was the first proprietary holding acquired by the company on Indian soil. Gradually the company expanded its trading network. By that time the company was well established in India. It had also succeeded in eliminating the other rival European powers from India. They also started interfering in the political affairs of the Indian rulers.

The Company officials utilized different methods to establish control over the Indian states before annexing territory from them. Further, the Company did not simply march its armies in a pure military conquest followed by annexation.

Instead, the Company’s relationships with each Indian state were painstakingly developed politically and economically, prior to any military confrontation. The company posted commercial or political agents (generally called ‘Residents’) in each of the major Indian states with which it dealt. As the Company power grew during the 1757-1857, it used a variety of methods to reduce the autonomy of each state it encountered.

The Company’s rights of intervention in each state were occasionally specified in treaties with that state. But frequently, the Company’s agents simply exercised them without, or even in violation of, any formal treaty provision. The Company squeezed vast amounts of capital from each state, either through tribute or subsidy payments by the ruler or else through the manipulation of trade.

The Company cut down the size and effectiveness of the armies under the control of the Indian rulers, preventing these armies from deployment outside of the state and additionally, limiting their use by the ruler for internal purposes such as revenue collection.

By shifting military power from the armies of the states to ‘subsidiary forces’ (paid for by the state but under control of the Company), the Company made many of the rulers powerless to oppose it openly. Through intervention in the internal affairs of the state, the Company finally established indirect rule over all the Indian states which it did not immediately annex.

Thus, early annexations took place mostly through military conquest over weakened Indian states, but later annexations came in instances where the Company deposed a ruler or dynasty already under its indirect rule. In quite a few cases, like that of Bengal, the Company established varying degrees of de facto power long before the official assumption of de jure authority took place.

The main types of industries that came up in the 19th century in India Rengthanmawii,1301BA153

When the British authorities reorganized and regulated India’s economy, they organized a modern administration system which brought an transformation and new ideas to Indian in all aspects. While there was an changing in society, the rising industrial interest also wanted to make India a big market of their goods.

An important development in the second half of the 19^th century was the establishment of large-scale machine based industry in India.The machine age in India began when cotton textile, jute and coal mining industries were started in the 1850’s . The first textile mill was started in Bombay by Cowasjee Nanabhoy in 1853,and the first jute mill in Rishra(Bengal) in 1855.These industries slowly expand but continuously. In 1879, there were 56 cotton textile mills in India employing nearly 43,000 persons. In 1882, there were 20 jute mills, most of them in Bengal employing nearly 20,000 person. The coal-mining industry employed nearly one lakh of persons in 1906. Other mechanical industries which developed during the second half of the 19^th  and beginning of 20^th century were cotton gins and presses, rice, flours and timber mills,leathertanneries, wollen textiles, sugar mills,iron and steel and such mineral industries as salt,mica and saltpeter. Cement,paper,matches, sigar and glass industries developed during the 1930’s, but these had a very stunned growth.

Apart from machine based industry, the 19^th century also witnessed the growth of plantation industries such as indigo, tea and coffee. Indigo was used as a dye in textile manufacture and it was introduced into Indians at the end of the 18^th century and flourished in Bengal and Bihar. The tea industry was developed in Assam, Bengal and South India and the hills of Himachal Prades, after 1850 it was also become an important items of export. Coffee plantation also introduced during this period in South India.

Most of these Indian industries were owned or controlled by the British capital. Foreign capitalists also attracted to Indian industry because labours were extremely cheap raw materials were readily and cheaply available and for many goods, India and its neighbours provided a ready market. For many Indian products such as tea, jute and manganese, there was a ready demand the world over.

On the otherhand, the plantation and other foreign owned industries were of hardly any advantages to the Indians. Their profit went out of the country as most of their products were sold in foreign market. Thus, the industrial progress in India was exceedingly slow and painful.

                                              

The Main Types of Industries that came up in the 19^th century

British in India ram an awpchhung hian nasatakin kalphung leh tihdan thar an chhawpchhuaka, an awptawhloh hnu pawh hian India chuan hmasawnna tamtak a nei a ni. Ram in relbawl nana pawimawh em em eizawnna mumal leh sumdawnnatur an duang bawk a ni. Chu mai piah lamah ramdang sumdawng mite chuan India hi thlunzawm an lo tum fo thin a ni.

Kumzabi 19 nalaia sumdawnna kawng a rawn lar chho em em mai chu large-scale machine based industry(khawl hmanga sumdawnna siam). India pawhin kum 1850’s chho khan he eizanna hi alo hmelhriat ve a ni. Chung zing a larte chu  cotton textile, jute leh coal mining te an ni. Textile industry hi a hmasabera tan kum 1853 khan Bengal ah tan ania, a bultumtu chu CowasjeeNanabhoy a ni. Jute industry pawh hi a hmasaberatan kum1855 khan Risha(Bengal)ah tan a ni. Heng sumdawnna hi zawimuanga tan a ni a,kum1879 khan cotton textile mill hi 56 a awma,hnathawktu mi 43,000 zet rawih a ni. Kum 1882 pawh khan jute mills hi hmun 20 laiah a awma,a tam bernachu Bengal ah a ni,mi 20,000 velzet an thawk bawk a ni. Coal mining industry ah pawh hian mi 115,000 dawn laimaihnathawk an awm bawk a ni. Heng industry piahlamahhian cotton gins lehpresses,rice, flour leh timber mills te,leather tanneries ,wollentextiles,sugar mills ,iron te leh steel te hi 19^th leh 20^th century tir lam te khan alo piangchhuak  a, mineral industries-salt ,mica leh saltpeter te pawh a awmbawk ani.1930’s khan cement,paper, matches, sugar leh glass industry te pawh a awm bawk.

19^th century hian machine industry piahlamah plantation industries te hi a hmelhriatbawk a, chungte chu-indigo, tea leh coffee te a ni. Indigo hi 18^th century tawp lama rawnherchhuak a ni a, Bengal leh Bihar ah te a lar bik hle.Kum 1950 hnuah Tea industry hi Assam, Bengal ,south India leh Himachal Pradesh tlangram ah tesiam a nia,sumdawnna a thilthawnchhuahpawimawhberte zing ami a ni. Coffee plantation pawh hi South India ah hemi hunlaivek a rawn in tan a ni.

Heng sumdawnna hi a tlangpuiin British ho hnuaia awm a nia; chumai paihlamah ram pawn lam miten an bawh em em mai a, achhan chu hnathawkte hlawh a tlemmai bakah hmanrua mamawh te hmuh a awlsam a atlawmhlawmhlevangpawh a nibawk. A lehlam ah chuan heng khawl hmanga eizawnna emaw thlai chin asumdawn emawte hi India mipuite tan chuan hlawkna a tlem hle maia, a hlawknate chu ram danga a luanral vang leh thilsiam chhuah reng rengte ram pawn a zawrh thin anihvangtepawh a ni, heng ah hian British ho chuan a hlawkna an tel nasaber thin. Chutiang avangchuan Indian industrial progress hi India tan chuan a thanatthlakin a hlawklem lo em em bawk a ni

The various land revenue policies introduced by British Jenny Lalthangkungi, 1301BA 131

 Land revenue was introduced by the British in India. The main burden of providing money for the trade and profits of the Company. The cost of administration and the wars of British expansion in India had to be borne by the Indian peasant or ryot. Infact, the British could not have conquered such a vast country as India if they had not taxed the peasant heavily. It had done indirectly through intermediaries, such as zamindars, revenue farmers etc, who collected the land revenue from the cultivator and kept a part of its as their commission

The Permanent Settlement:Warren:Hasting auctioned the right to collect revenue to the higestbidders.But his experiment did not succeed. Though the amount of land revenue was pushed high by zamindars and other speculators bidding against each other. The actual collection varied from year to year and seldom came up to official expectation. Moreover, neither the ryot nor the zamindar would do anything to improve cultivators when they did not know what the net year assessment would be on who would be the next years revenue collectors.

 It was at this stage that the idea first emerged of fixing the land revenue at a permanent amount. The zamindars were to give 10/11 of the rental they derived from the peasantry to the state keeping only 1/11 for themselves.At the same time, the zamindar had to pay his revenue rigidly on the due date even if the crops had failed for some reason;otherwise his lands were to be sold.

The Ryotwari Settlement: Under this system the cultivators was to be reorganized as the owner of his plot of land subject to the payment of land revenue. The ryot’s right of ownership of his land were also negated by the factors, i.e, the ryot had to pay revenue even when his produce was partially or wholly destroyed by drought or floods.

The Mahalwari System: A modified version of the zamindari settlement introduced in the Ganga Valley,the North-West provinces,part of Central India and the Punjab was known as the Mahalwari system.

British ho hian India ah hian land revenue an lo siam a. Hei hi an lo siamnachhanchu British ho in indonalehinenkawlna a an phurritvel India ramathingtlang mite leh loneitute chawitir an duh vangani. Anihnatakahchuan India anga ram zau hi British tan chuanchhiahrittakhnuaiaankaihhruailohchuan an awpthathei dawn lo ani. He land revenue hi zamindarte, loneimite leh midangtehnenah an khawn thin a ,bakah a then an commission thin a ni.

The Permanent Settlement:

Land revenue a an pawisa pek thin hi zamindarste hian an tisang thin a, an thilkhawnte hi kumtin a danglam thin bawk. Engpawhchunise, lomitelehzamindarstehianloneitutehmasawn nan engkim anti theia,mahse a kumleh a chhiahturemawchhiahkhawnttuturengmah an hrengai lo ani.

Hetiangdinhmunatanghianngaihdanthar a rawnluta,chuchu a nghet a chhiahbitukani. Zamindars ho hian 10/11 thingtlang mite hnena an hmuh thin hi an thehlut thin turania,tichuan 1/11 chauhchuanmahni tan an dah turani. Hemi rualhianbuhemawthlaitechuengthilvangpawhin lo chhe ta se, zamindars ho chuanchhiahchua huntakahzel an pek a ngai thin a; an pektheihlohchuan an ram chuhralhturani.

The Ryotwari System:

He system ah hi chuanloneimitechu an ram bialzimte a thuneitu an nia,chhiahpawh an chawi a ngaivethoani. A ram in a thawhchhuahchukhawkhengemawtuilian pawn lo tichhemahse lei man chu a pektho a ngai a ni.

The Mahalwari System:

Ganga valley,North-West leh Central India a zamindari settlement tihdan dang an hman hi mahalwari system ani. Chhiahkhawndanturchuthingtlang mi te maw landlord ten a ansiamtur a ni.

                                                                  

Revolt of 1857- Paper V

A mighty popular revolt broke out in northern and central India in 1857 and nearly swept away British rule it began with a mutiny of the sepoys or the Indian soldiers of the company’s army, but soon engulf wide regions and people millions of peasants, artisans and soldiers fought heroically for over a year and by their courage and sacrifice wrote a glorious chapter in Indian history. VD Savarkar—a revolutionary and ideologue of ‘Hindutva’ called it as Indians first national war of Independence in his book War of Independence. Interestingly, R.C Majumdar wrote that it was neither national nor war of independence.

Grievances of native rulers: An important reason for the outbreak of revolt was the controversial and unjustified policy of ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ imposed by Lord Dalhousie on Satara, Jaipur, Sambhalpur, Baghat, Udaipur, Jhansi, Nagpur. The adopted sons of these states were not recognised and they were annexed but the most controversial annexation was the annexation of Awadh in 1856. The Nawab of Awadh Wajid Ali Shah was accused of mis-governance. Although, its ruler always being faithful to the British. A large number of company’s soldiers from Awadh who had sympathy for the Nawab. Abolition of titles and suspension of pensions: Dalhousie abolished the titles of the Nawab of Carnatic and the Raja of Tanjore and refused to grant the pension to the adopted son Nana Saheb of the last Peshwa (Baji Rao II) after that the successor of Bahadur Shah II  would have to leave the Red Fort. Canning’s announced in 1856 that the successor of Bahadur Shah were to be known only as princes and not as kings.

Grievances of Sepoys: Discrimination in payment and promotions; mistreatment of the sepoys by the British officials; refusal of the British to pay foreign service allowances (batta) while fighting in remote regions such as Punjab or Sindh; religious objections of the high caste Hindu sepoys to Lord Canning’s General Service Enlistment Act (1856) ordering all recruits to be ready for service both within and  outside India: encouragement given to the Christian missionaries by the British army officers.

Grievances of orthodox and conservative people: Fear of the Indians (both Muslim and Hindu) due to the activities of the Christian missionaries and the protection and encouragement given to them by the British government; resentment of the conservative and orthodox elements against the social reforms and humanitarian measures introduced by the government, eg. Abolition of Sati (1829), legalization of Widow Remarriage (1856), spread of western education, etc.; Disaffection caused by the official policy of taxing lands belonging to temples, charitable institutions, mosques, etc-all of them alienated these sections from British.

Grievances of the Craftsmen, Peasants and Zamindars: Artisans and Craftsmen-Destruction of village industries and handicrafts due to the one-way free trade policy of the British. Peasants- Loss of their lands to the moneylenders due to the land and land-revenue policies of the British, Particularly the Ryotwari system, and their system of law and admission (which favoured the money-lenders at the cost of the peasants). Traditional Zamindar- Many of them lost their Zamindaris to the new class of urban-based absentee landlords due to the introduction of the Zamindari or the permanent settlement and the strict manner of revenue collection by the British.

Grievances of middle and upper classes: Due to their total exclusion from high administrative and military posts: ruin of those persons who depended on Indian rulers’ patronage of arts and literature.

Immediate Cause: By 1857, the material for a mass upheaval was ready, only a spark was needed to set it afire. The episode of the greased cartridges provided this spark for the sepoys and their mutiny provided the general populace the occasion to revolt. The new Enfield rifle had been first introduced in the army. Its cartridges had a greased paper over whose end had to be bitten off before the cartridges were loaded into the rifle. The grease was in some instances composed of beef and pig fat. The sepoys, Hindu as well as Muslims, were enraged. Mangal Pandey, a young sepoy of 34^th native infantry, was hanged on 29^th March 1857 for revolting single handed and attacking his superior officers. Although, the war ended in a defeat of the Indians by the English, it was definitely a civilian rebellion as its participants belonged to different sections of the community ranging from nobility to tribal groups. By terming it as a mere sepoy mutiny they were in fact justifying their rule in India.

Trace the course of British wars with Mysore?- Paper V

First War (1766-69)

Causes: Haider Ali’s ambition to drive the British away from the Carnatics and finally from India and the realisation of the threat posed them by Haider Ali. Haider Ali extended his territories by conquering many areas in South India. The rapid rise of Haider Ali naturally excited the jealousy of the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad. They joined together and formed a triple alliance and declare war on Haider Ali. By his diplomacy haider Ali, cleverly won over the Marathas and the Nizam.

Course: Haider Ali was defeated at Changam and Thiruvannamalai in 1767. At the same time, Tipu Sultan, son of Haider Ali advanced towards Chennai. So the English were forced to enter into the Treaty of Madras in 1769. It was signed by Haider Ali and the allies, consisting of the Company, the Raja of Tajore, the Malabar ruler. It provided that: a mutual restitution of conquests take place except for Karur and its districts, which were to be retained by the Mysore ruler; in case either of the parties was attacked, the other would rally to its assistance; all the captured employees of the Madras government were to be released by Haider Ali; the Raja of Tanjore was to be treated as a friend and the ally of Haider Ali; and the trade privileges of Bombay Presidency and English factories were to be restored.

Second War (1780-84)

Causes: The main causes which led to the war were: Mysore was attacked by the Marathas in 1771. As per the treaty of Madras, the English did not help Haider Ali. Haider Ali got angry and waited for opportunity to strike against the English. Out break of hostilities between the English and the French (an ally of Haider) during American War of Independence. Mahe, a French possession in the dominion of Haider Ali was attacked by the English, Haider Ali made alliance with the Nizam and the Marathas against the English in 1779.

Course: Haider Ali declared a war on the English in 1780. He defeated the English force in the Carnatic. He made them surrender and occupied almost the whole of Carnatic. However, the English under Sir Eyre Coote, defeated Haider Ali at Port Novo in 1781. In the meantime, Haider Ali died of cancer in 1782. But his son Tipu Sultan continued the war with the English for the two more years. The war came to an end with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784): The treaty stipulated that: The two parties were not to assist each other’s enemies directly or indirectly, nor make war on each other’s allies. The trade privileges granted to the Company by Haider Ali in 1770 are to be restored, although no additional benefits would accrue. Both sides agreed to a mutual restoration of possessions (barring the forts of Amboorgur and Satgur), and Tipu undertook not to make any claims on the Carnatics in future. Tipu agreed to release all prisoners of war (numbering 1,680). Tipu restore the factory and privileges possessed by the Company at Calicut until 1779.

Third War (1790-92)

Causes: Tipu Sultan improved his resources by strengthening his position by undertaking various internal reforms, while the English started improving their relationship with the Nizam and the Marathas. Tipu Sultan made an attempt to acquire help from France and Turkey by sending envoys to those countries (1787). He also enlarge his territories at the cost of his neighbours, particularly the raja of Travancore, who was an ally of the British (1789), and conclusion of an alliance by the British with the Nizam and the Marathas against Tipu (1790).

Course: Both the troops had victories and defeats alternatively. The war came to an end in 1792. Tipu signed the Treaty of Seringapatam with the English. He had to give half of his kingdom to the English. The English got Malabar, Coorg, Dindugal, and Bramahal (now the Salem and Erode areas).

Fourth War (1799)

Causes: The treaty of Seringapatam failed to bring peace between Tipu and the English. Tipu refused to accept the subsidiary alliance of Lord Wellesley. He wanted to take revenge on the English. He sent emissaries to Kabul, Constantinople, Arabia and France to get their support.

Course: When Wellesley came to know all about Tipu’s activities, he declared war at once against him in 1799. Tipu suffered defeats at the hands of General Stuart and General Harris. Wellesley himself besieged Seringapatam. Tipu fought bravely but died in the battle.

The English annexed large portions of Mysore. The central part of Mysore was given to Krishna Raja of Wadiar dynasty. Wih the fall of Seringapatam, the ‘Empire of the East’ was now under the British feet.

When and how did the British acquire Bengal? Paper V

Bengal was the richest province of the eighteenth century. English east India Company benefited most from this province. It is, thus, natural for the English East India Company to strengthen its position in Bengal. They had some advantages there as the headquarter of the Company in India was at Calcutta. The Dutch and the French were present in Bengal only through their sub-ordinate factories, like Chinsura of Dutch and Chandernagar (Chandernagore) of the French.

Battle of Plassey

In 1756, Siraj-ud-daula became successor of Alivardi Khan. He was young and experienced; besides, he had many enemies within the family. The English east India Company and the French were fighting in the South. The English started fortifying Calcutta without the permission and knowledge of Nawab Siraj-ud-daula. Siraj ordered them to stop their enhancement of military preparedness but the Company refused to do so. The English were also misusing Dastak (free permit) based on the Mughal Firman, issued to them in 1717 by Farrukhsiyar. It was understood that the concessions allowed by the Mughals was only on those goods, which had been imported by the East India Company from Europe. The English officials had no right to claim immunity from duty for goods belonging to the servants of the east India Company. But its employees started using, rather misusing, the Dastak for personal trade, causing huge financial loss to the exchequer of Bengal. Besides, they also started selling the Dastaks to the Indian traders. Another complaint which Siraj had against the British was that they gave refuge to Krishna Das, son of Raja Rajballava his enemy’s man.

Siraj attacked Calcutta on June 16, 1756 and captured it on 20^th June. His large army and sudden attack surprised the English had already fled to Fulta, twenty miles lower down the river, but few of them were made captive and kept in a cell.

The Black Hole

The black Hole is the current term for the local ‘lockup’ in which the English captives were kept. J.Z. Howell, the defender of Calcutta and one of the survivors, narrated what happened in the call where British subjects were imprisoned. His version was that 146 prisoners were confined in a small room (18 feet by 14 feet) in the night of June (the time of the year when Calcutta is hot and humid). 123 died overnight of suffocation.

The whole story and the figure seem to be an exaggeration as the local (especially Persian) records do not support the claim made by Howell. This kind of propaganda against the Indian rulers was common in those days to prove them barbaric and to justify the British rule in India. In any case, Siraj was personally not involved in the so-called black Hole tragedy. This incident made the English at Chennai to send a relieving force under Robert Clive to Bengal. Clive entered into conspiracy with Mir Jafar, the Commander in-chief of Siraj. Clive marched towards Plassey, on 23 June 1757 which was near to the Nawab’s capital Murshidabad. As agreed earlier, Mir Jafar, the Chief Commander did not take up arms against the English army. On the other hand Nawab’s soldiers fled from the battlefield. Later, the Nawab was killed and Mir Jafar was made the Nawab of Bengal as promised by Clive.
                                              Results and Significance: 
Paved away for the British mastery of Bengal and eventually the whole of India. Boosted the prestige of the British and made them a major contender for the Indian empire. Enabled the Company and its servants to a mass untold wealth at the cost of the people of Bengal. Marked the beginning of the drain of wealth from India to Britain, that is, economic exploitation of India by the British.

Battle of Buxar

Mir Qasim was young, energetic and ambitious ruler. He wanted to be independent. He shifted his capital to Moghyr, a place far away from Calcutta. He also employed foreign experts to train his army. So quarrels broke out between him and the English. The English decided to overthrow him. It resulted in the Battle of Buxar 1764. The combined armies of Mir Qasim, Nizam-ud-daula, the Nawab of Oudh, and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II were defeated by the English General Major Munro.

The battle came to end with the Treaty of Allahabad, concluded in 1765. As per the treaty, the Province Oudh was return to Nizam-ud-daula. But he had to pay a war loss of Rs. 50 lakhs to the English. The districts of Kara and Allahabad were given to Shah Alam. Shah Alam was granted the Diwani Right of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the English. In turn, the English agreed to pay him a pension of Rupees 26 lakhs per year.

As a result of his success in Bengal, Robert Clive was appointed as the first Governor of Bengal (1758-1760). He consolidated the British power both in Bengal and in the Deccan. He introduced a new administrative system in Bengal called Dual or Double Government.

                                                     Results and Significance: 

Made the British De facto rulers of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa (Dual Government). Made the nawab of Oudh (Awadh) a dependent of the Company and the Mughal emperor its pensioner, thus raising the prestige of the Company. Demonstration of the superiority of the English in military skills and arms.

Discuss the methods of the British to establish their rule in India? Paper V

The Company officials utilized different methods to establish control over the Indian states before annexing territory from them. Further, the Company did not simply march its armies in a pure military conquest followed by annexation.

Instead, the Company’s relationships with each Indian state were painstakingly developed politically and economically, prior to any military confrontation. The company posted commercial or political agents (generally called ‘Residents’) in each of the major Indian states with which it dealt. As the Company power grew during the 1757-1857 period, it used a variety of methods to reduce the autonomy of each state it encountered.

The Company’s rights of intervention in each state were occasionally specified in treaties with that state. But frequently, the Company’s agents simply exercised them without, or even in violation of, any formal treaty provision. The Company squeezed vast amounts of capital from each state, either through tribute or subsidy payments by the ruler or else through the manipulation of trade.

The Company cut down the size and effectiveness of the armies under the control of the Indian rulers, preventing these armies from deployment outside of the state and additionally, limiting their use by the ruler for internal purposes such as revenue collection.

By shifting military power from the armies of the states to ‘subsidiary forces’ (paid for by the state but under control of the Company), the Company made many of the rulers powerless to oppose it openly. Through intervention in the internal affairs of the state, the Company finally established indirect rule over all the Indian states which it did not immediately annex.

Thus, early annexations took place mostly through military conquest over weakened Indian states, but later annexations came in instances where the Company deposed a ruler or dynasty already under its indirect rule. In quite a few cases, like that of Bengal, the Company established varying degrees of de facto power long before the official assumption of de jure authority took place.