IMPACT OF MARXISM ON HISTORIOGRAPHY Lalsangpuia Ngente Roll No - 1201 BA 471

                                                       

                Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenents of Marxism, including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes. Friedrich Engles wrote ‘The Peasants War’ in Germany, which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany in terms of emerging capitalist classes. Although it lacked a rigorous engagement with archival sources, it indicated an early interest in history from below and class analysis, and it attempts a dialectical analysis. Another treatise of Engels, ‘The Condition of nthe Working Class in England in 1844 was salient in creating socialist impetus in British politics from then on.

R.H. Tawney was an early historian working in this tradition. ‘The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912)’ and ‘Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926)’, reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. He was profoundly interested in the issue of the enclosure of land in the English countryside in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and in Max Weber's thesis on the connection between the appearance of Protestanism and the rise of capitalism. His belief in the rise of the gentry in the century before the outbreak of the Civil War in England provoked the 'Storm over the Gentry' in which his methods were subjected to severe criticisms by Hugh Trevor-Roper  and John Cooper.

A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of Bristish Marxist historians, who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society. While some members of the group left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the common points of British Marxist historiography continued in their works. They placed a great emphasis on the subjective determination of history.

Some of the important Marxist historians were Eric Hobsbawm, C.L.R. James, Raphael Samuel, A.L. Morton, David Montgomery,  Herbert Gutman and Brian Pearce.

Although Marxist historiography made important contributions to the history of the working class, oppressed nationalities, and the methodology of history from below, its chief problematic aspect was its argument on the nature of history as determined or dialectical; this can also be stated as the relative importance of subjective and objective factors in creating outcomes. It increasingly fell out of favour in the 1960s and '70s. Geoffrey Elton was important in undermining the case for a Marxist historiography, about which he argued was presenting seriously flawed interpretations of the past. In particular, Elton was opposed to the idea that the English Civil War was caused by socioeconomic changes in the 16th and 17th centuries, arguing instead that it was due largely to the incompetence of the Stuart kings.

The influence of Marxism on modern historiography could be seen in the emphasis it laid on the role of the masses. Especially in revolutionary epochs, Marx even gave them a leading role in history and predicted that the social revolution of the proletariat would the capitalist class and they would take over the means of production and abolish private property.   Historical interest now began to shift its focus from political history which is made up of the activities of the states and individual rulers to larger and larger numbers of ordinary people.

Problems of Marxist Historiography: Marxism is obviously in a crisis in the developed Western capitalist countries. But this crisis did not begin with the collapse of Communism in the Soviet Union and in the countries of Eastern Europe dominated by it. Western Marxism had already distanced itself much earlier from the Marxist-Leninist approach propagated by the Soviet Union. One of the theses of this paper is that the crisis of Marxism as a revolutionary working class movement came with the outbreak of the First World War. This crisis reflected the failure of Marx adequately to understand the social and economic realities of his time. His strength lay in the perceptive analysis of the development of a capitalist economy on a global scale, which in many aspects proved to be correct. Nevertheless this analysis was inseparably connected with a conception of history predicting the inevitable progression from capitalism to socialism which turned out to be mistaken. Marx had expected the transition from bourgeois society to socialism to occur still during his life time as the result of a victorious revolution of the working class.  Instead the working class movements saw the defeat of Chartism in England, the 1848 Revolutions on the Continent, and the Commune in Paris.

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                                                                        HISTORIOGRAPHY-A MARXISM NGHAWNG

Marxist historiography hi historiography zirna angin alo in chherchhuak a, hei hi a chhan chu Marxism zirtirna lak un vang a ni a, hei hian khawtlang in tluk tlanna leh ei leh bar a khuahkhirhna lam a keng tel. Friedrich Engels chuan ‘The Peasants War’ tih lehkhabu Germany-a a ziah chuan Protestant Germany hun hmalama khawtlanga mi hausate intihhranna ina khawtlanga indona leh in epna a chhuah dante a tarlang a. He lehkhabua a thuchhawp chhuahte hian ziaka nemnghehna dang nei thalo hle mahse khawtlanga class inthenna chungchang an lo zirchian nasatzia leh tanfung fel tak neia inhnialna chawh chhuah a thudik hmuchhuah a tumruh hle a ni. Engels a zirchianna pakhat 'The Condition of the Working Class in England' tih kum 1844 a mi chu Bristish politics kal zelnaah socialism tihlar nana hmanraw pawimawh tak a ni zui a ni.

Historian lar, R.H Tawney khan hemi chungchang hi a zir nasa hle a. 'The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century' kum 1912-a a ziah leh 'Religion and the Rise of Capitalism ' tih 1926-a a ziahte chuan khawtlanga sum thawhchhuah leh hman chungchanga rilru tha leh dik a ngaimawhzia an tilang chiang hle a.

Kum zabi 16 leh 17 hunlai a English-ho khaw chhehvel ram hung chungchangah khan a tui hle a; tin, Max Weber-a thesis, Protestanism lo lan tanna leh capitalism lo chhuahdan in kungkaihna a ziahna chu a tuipui hle bawk. English khawtlang inrelbawlna a mi chungnung bikte leh mi hnuaihnung zawkte in thliarhranna chu England a Civil War intan hma kum za kalta vela rawn irh chhuak ni ngeia a rin ngheh tlat avangin Hugh Trevor- Roper leh Jihn Cooper te hnen atangin sawiselna nasa tak a tawk bawk a ni.

Kum 1946-a din, Communist Party of Great Britain chhunga historian intelkhawmte chu British ho zinga Marxist historian pawimawh tak tak an rawn ni chho a. Capitalist society a mi te leh milian inthliar dan (class sturcture) zirchianna kawngah pawh an thawhhlawk hle a ni. He pawl zinga mi thenkhat chuan kum 1956 a Hungarian Revolution hnu lawk khan an pawl chhuahsan mahse an chhuah hnu a an kuthnuah pawh an pawl hluizia leh thil ngaihtuah dan an la chhawm nung zel a ni tih a hmuh theih.

Marxist historian zinga pawimawh leh langsar zualte chu Eric Hobsbawm, C.L.R James, Raphael Samuel, A.L Morton, David Montgomery,  Herbert Gutman leh Brian Pearce-te an ni.

Marxist historiography hian khawtlang inthen hranna a mi hnuaihnung zawk/ hnathawktu pawl bik (working class) chanchin zirna ah thawhhlawk hle mahse heng thil zirchianna a an thutawp siamnate hi tanfung tha tawk tak neia finfiah an ni em tih a inhnialna a chawk chhuak nasa hle a. Kum 1960 leh 70 bawr vel khan ngaihsak a hlawh zui ta meuhlo a ni. Marxist historiography hnial thlak tumna kawngah hian  Geoffrey Elton chuan hma a la nasa hle a. Elton hian Marxist historiography chu thil kal tawh (past) a zirchian dan leh thil awmzia a tihlan dan a dik tawklo niin a sawi. English Civil War lo intanna pawh khawtlang inrelbawl dan inlumlet nasa lutuk leh sum leh pai dinhmun inthlak thut te’n a an chawhchhuah nia an sawi phei chu Elton hian nasa taka hnialin Stuart lalte leh roreltute fel tawkloh vanga thleng niin a sawi.

Modern historiography-a Marxism hnuhma hmuh theih chu mipui chanvo ngaihpawimawhna hi a ni. Sawrkar laka helna lantirna leh khawtlanga danglamna thlen (revolution) chungchangah phei chuan Marx khan mipuite chu hmahruaitu tur an ni a ti hial a; mi hnuaihnung zawkte helna avanga mi hausate sum dehchhuahna chu mi hnuaihnungte kuta a la thlen ngei dawn thu a sawi lawk bawk. Khawtlang inrelbawl dan leh vantlang chanchin zirchianna chungchangah hian sorkar chetvel dan aiin khawtlang mite nunphung ah rilru pek a ni tawh zawk a ni.

Marxist Historiography thatlohna laite: Khawthlang lama capiltalist ram tam zawkah khu chuan Marxism hian harsatna nasa tak a tawk mek a. He harsatna hi Soviet Union leh Eastern Europe ram thenkhat a Communism tlakchhiat atanga intan a nilo. Western Marxism hi chu Soviet Union-in Marxism leh Lenin-a zirtirna kaihkawp (Marxist- Leninist approach) a tihlar atang tawh khan alo in tihrang daih tawh a ni. He paper in pholan a tum ber pakhat chu Marxism buaina kha Indopui pakhatna rawn in tan lai vela khawtlanga mi hnuaihnung zawkte helna nena a kalkawp tak tlat vang kha a ni tih hi a ni. He buaina hian Marx-an a hunlaia khawtlanga dinhmun leh sum leh pai dinhmun dik tak a hrechiang tawklo tih a tilang chiang hle a. Marx khan bourgeois society atanga socialism a inthlakna chu mi hnuaihnung zawkte helna a hlawhtlin em avang khan a damlai ngeia thleng hman turah a ngai a, mahse kha helna khan a hrin chhuah chu England a Chartism paihthlak anih dante, 1848 Revolutions leh Paris-a The Commune-te kha a ni.

* References:

1).  http://www.lbihs.at/Iggers_Marxist_Tradition_of_Historical_Writing.pdf 

2). http://puchistory.blogspot.in/2015/01/impact-of-marxism-on-historiography.html 

* Lalsangpuia Ngente

Roll No - 1201 BA 471

Dept. of History (6th Sem.)

CHINESE HISTORIOGRAPHY V.Lalremruati Roll No-555

Chinese historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history dates back to the Shang Dynasty.

The first systematic Chinese historical text, the Records of the Grand Historian, was written by Sima Qian and his father. The book covers the period from the time of the Yellow Emperor until the author’s own life. Due to his highly praised and highly copied work, Sima Qian is often regarded as ‘the father of Chinese historiography’. The Shitong was the first Chinese work about Chinese historiography. It was compiled by Liu Zhiji between 708 and 710 CE. The book describes the general pattern of the official dynasty histories.

The nature of historical works also represents wide ranging interests. Many works have been written by the Chinese on different aspects of government machinery, monasteries etc.

Li-chi, the Book of Rites: In this book, the historians’ views of the past are expressed in the most exalted terms. It contains many essays. This work was compiled during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). The ideal of a social order wherein lived in “Grand City” is described in many lucid passages.

During the Han Dynasty cyclical pattern was accepted by the Chinese historians. It means the cyclical sequence of events discussed by those historians was explained in this book. This cyclical pattern repeated itself through several centuries. This was the view of ancient Chinese historians.

Ssu-ma-Chien: In the reign of Wu-ti, Ssu-ma-Chien the greatest among Chinese historians wrote his great history called the ‘Shih-Chi’ which means ‘historical records’.

Ssu-ma-Chien was born in 145 BC. His father was a Court Astrologer. When Chien was very young, he memorized the text of antiquity and he used these as his source material. He travelled extensively. He may be called the ‘Father of History in Oriental lands’. After the death of his father Chien became the Court Astrologer. He brought about the reform of the Calendar.

The Shih-Chi covers the history of China from the beginning of Ssu-ma-Chien’s own day. It includes not only significant political events but gives the biographies of important persons; chronological tables of battles, economic data, the calendar and so forth. It was written at the close of the 2^nd and the beginning of the first century BC.

The Tso-Chuan: It is another kind of history. It is in the form of a chronicle and events are listed year by year. The most reputed among such chronicle was the ‘Tyu-Chih-tung-chien’ by Ssu-ma-kuang (1019-1089). This chronicle covered the history of Chinese development from late in the Chou to beginning of the Sung periods. It covered the period from the 5^th Century BC to the close of the five dynasties. Ssu-ma-kuang was a Politician. He wrote his history when he was in power.

Tung-chien-Chishipenna: Yuan-chu prepared a history called ‘Tung-chien’chishipenna’ which means ‘root causes and effects of affairs recorded in the universal mirror’.

There are many special histories on different aspects of Chinese life. The Chinese have produced a large volume of local histories and gazetteers. They are very descriptive in nature. In china, there are 5000 gazetteers we get a lot of information about the governmental machinery also. We also get some information about the civil services of china. China has a large volume of inscriptions. These have been compiled and studied. Treatises have been written on them by the Chinese themselves.

The modern historical tradition of china is influenced by communist ideology. In this way the Chinese have done a wonderful thing in the study of historiography.

Reference: 

Historiography by N.Jayapalan

Chinese historiography in a kawh ber chu China ho sulhnu ziahna te zirna a ni a. Chinese history hi Shang Dynasty atang tawh a vawn leh chhinchhiah a ni.

Chinese ho historical text mumal taka neih hmasak ber chu ‘The Records of the Grand Historian’ tih niin Sima Qian leh  a pa ziah a ni a. He lehkhabu hian Yellow Emperor hunlai atanga a ziaktu hunlai thleng a huam a. He lehkhabu hian mite fak leh mi te ngaih hlut a hlawh em avangin, he lehkhabu ziaktu, Sima Qian-a chu ‘Father of Chinese Historiography’ tih hiala chhal a lo ni ta a. ‘The Shitong’ tih hi Chinese ten an mahni historiography an neih hmasak ber a ni a, Liu Zhiji in kum 708 leh kum 710 CE inkar vela a thuziak lawrkhawm a ni a. He lehkhabu ah hian china lal ram kim tak a ziah a ni.

He an hnam ziarang an ziahna kalhmang hian mi tam tak a ti phur a. An hnam zia rang tam zawk hi chu anmahni Chinese ho ziah nin, an sawrkar inrelbawl dan leh an puithiam awm khawmna hmun te an ziak ber.

Li-chi, The book of Rites: He lehkhabu ah hian, hun kal tawh historian ten an hmuh dan chu a chawisang hle a, essay tam tak a tel bawk a ni. He lehkhabu hi Hans dynasty hunlai vel a lawrkhawm a ni a, (202 BC – 220 AD). He tih hunlai a khawtlang mite duhthusam chu tlar tinah hian ziah a ni.

Han dynasty hunlai hian a ngai ang bawka hun lo in her leh chu Chinese historian te ho pawm dan a ni a. He lehkhabu ah pawh hian chutiang ang ziah chu  a ni. Hei hi ancient Chinese historian te thlir dan a ni.

Ssu-ma-chien: Wu-ti hunlai a Chinese historian ropui ber a chhal Ssu-ma-chien chuan ‘Shih-chi’ tih lehkha bu a ziak a, a awmzia chu an hun kal tawh te chhinchhiahna tihna a ni.

Ssu-ma-chien hi kum 145 BC ah a piang a,  a pa chu arsi lam aienthiam a ni a. Chien-a hian a naupan tet atangin hmasang thil te hi a vawng in zir nuam a ti em em a, chu chuan a thuziah na ah kawng tam takin a pui a ni. Tin, a thuziakna tur hian ram tam tak fangin a zinkual nasa em em bawk a ni. Tin, Chien-a hi ‘Father of History in Oriental Lands’ tih a chhal a ni bawk a ni. A pa thih  hnu ah a pa hna arsi lam zirna chu chhunzawmin hunbi chhiarna (Calendar) pawh a ti hmasawn bawk a ni.

Shi-chi lehkhabu hian china history a ziak kimchang hle a. He lehkhabu ah hian an ram politics ringawt in ziak lovin mi ropui tak tak te chanchin pawh ziah a ni a, indo hunlai te, an ram hausakna te leh thil dang tangkai tak tak te ziah tel a ni. He lehkhabu hi kum zabi 2 tir lam atanga kum zabi 3 tawp lam thlenga ziah a ni.

The Tso-chuan : He lehkhabu pawh hi hun kal tawh ziahna tho a ni a. He lehkhabu ah hian fel fai taka kum indawt dana ziah a ni a. Heng zinga hmingthang/ hmingtha  ber chu ‘Tyu-Chih-tung-chien’ niin Ssu-ma-Kuang ziah a ni (1019-1086). Hetah hian china ram hmasawnna Chou atanga Sung hunlai thlenga tarlan a ni. Chumi awmzia chu kum zabi 5-na atanga a hnu lal ram panga thleng  a huam a. Ssu-ma-kuang a hi politician a ni a. Ama thu a a lehkhabu te hi a ziah a ni.

Tung-chien-chishipenna: He lehkhabu hi Yuan-Chu a ziah a ni. A awmzia chu ‘a chhan bul leh an inpawhtawnna chhinchhiahna’ tihna a ni.

China ho nunah hian hun kal tawh leh chhinchhiah tlak tak tak an ngah ve em em a, a bu pawn tam tak an chhuah tawh a ni. China ah chuan ram chanchin chuanna bu 5000 lai an awm a. Hetah hian sawrkar inrelbawlna leh sawrkar hnathawk te chanchin a inziak bawk a. Heng ho hi china-mi ho ziah a ni.

China history te hi Communist ngaihtuahna hmang veka ziah a ni a. Hetiang atang hian china ho chuan an hnam sulhnu ropui takin an ziak thei a ni.

Reference: 

Historiography by N.Jayapalan

MEANING OF HISTORY C.Vanramdinmawia Rollno : 536

The word ’history’ is derived from the Greek noun ’historia’ meaning ’inquiry or research.’ Aristotle regarded it as a "systematic account of a set of natural phenomena, whether or not chronological ordering was a factor in the account." The term "history" has now come to be applied to accounts of events that are narrated in a chronological order, and deal with the past of mankind.

Learning by inquiry about the past of mankind was later developed into a discipline by the Greek historians Thucydides and Heredeotus (who is popularly known as ’Father of History’). E. H. Carn defined history as an "unending dialogue between the present and the past." Jawaharlal Nehru observed that man’s growth from barbarism to civilization is supposed to be the theme of history." Will Durant called history "a narrative of what civilized men have thought or done in the past time."

World history is primarily concerned with the evolution of mankind. It traces the whole story of man as well as of his progress in civilization a culture from the dim past up to the present day. It indicates his failures and his successes, describes his laws and his wars, and reveals his religions and his arts. It gives an account of the significant developments that took place in the past with reference to the countries and the men and women who played a noteworthy part. Thomas Carlyle, a famous historian of the French revolution regards world history as the "biography of great men.

History is cyclical – since we are reincarnated, we get multiple chances to get it right. And “getting it right” means becoming one with the cosmic consciousness. So, there is no end – it just keeps going around and around. And there is no overall purpose. History is just the context in which the person evolves to a higher (or lower) state.

History is linear – just a series of natural events. There is no over-arching purpose. It just happens. And I suppose in the naturalist’s view, history will end. At least human history. Humans will eventually become extinct.

The Postmodernist is going to also believe that history is just the study of one culture’s power over another. And since truth is relative, the postmodernist will be willing to revise history to manipulate people to believing what he wants them to believe.

History tih thumal chu Greek tawng atang a lak ani a, “Historia” tih tang a lak ani. Greek tawng a asawi tum tak chu “dapchhuah emaw zawnchhuah” tihna a ni ber. Mahse tunlai chan a kan hman dan tlawnglawn tak ah chuan “ Hunhlui liam tawh hnu kan chhui kir leh na leh kan zirna hi ani” History zirna rawn tichhuak tu hmasa te zing a ngaih theih langsar hmasa be rte chu `Thucidides` leh `Heredeotus` te an ni a, Heredeotus phei hi chu Father of Hidtory tih hial a hriat latr ani thin.

           

History chu mihring khawsak dan hunrei tawh tak a mi leh thilhluite zirna ani a, thil kal tawh te a bikin mihringte behchhan a Zirna a ni, Hun laim tawh mihring pakhat behchhan in emaw Ram pakhat emaw Hmun pakhat behchhan a Zirna hi ani. Hmanlai a thilthleng an lo chhinchhiah a tang te, an hnu hma leh an sulhnu atang te, tawngka a kan in hlan chhawn zel dan atang ten leh tunlai thiamna sang taka tang in History chu kan hre thei dawn ani.

History kan tih hian Hun liam tawh hnu a nih ngei ngei a ngai a, HGistory chu mihring hun liamtawh chhinchhiahna leh record an lo dah that te tang te hi ani a, History chu tawngka leh chhhinchhiahna hmang a mihring ten a kan in hlan chhawn zel hi ani, Ram leh hnam pakhat lo dingchhuak a tluchhe leh chanchin te, ram inrelbawl dan leh eizawnna leh sumdawnna te, indonate leh inremnate in a mihring khawsak phung a nghawng dan zawng zawng hi History chu ani.

            History chu kan rin dan leh ngaihluatdan hawi lam nilo in kan hriatrengna hi ani zawk a, hriatrengna leh chhinchhiahna hmangin “Tuanthu’ chu kan hre thei ani. “Tuanthu” chu mihring finna leh hriatrengna hun liamtawh leh thil thleng tawh nen a in zawm tlat hi ani,  History chu hun liam tawh hnu leh thil thleng tawh hnu hi a ni ngai a, mahse Thil thleng tawh leh hun liam tawh na zawng hi History a ni vek kher lo, Hun liam tawh hnu leh thilthleng tawh kan hriatrengna leh chhinchhiah a awm reng leh zawnchhuah mek te hi History chu ani.

           

History/Tuanthu chu hmanlai thil thleng tawh Tawngka in emaw, chhinchhiahna hmangte in emaw kutziak lehkha te in emaw, lungphun leh sulhnu hmang a kan in hlan chhawn zel hi ani a, hun liam tawh hnu leh thil thleng tawh te hi hmanlai mi ten tun hun thleng a hriat zel theih tur in an hunlai a thil thleng chu Hla ten an phuah a, lehkha ah te ziak a lo dah tha thlap in, ziak leh chhiar thiam lo te pawhin chhinchhiahna eng emaw tak chu an lo hnutchhiah ve thin ani, chu chu tun hnu a kan thlirlet hian an hunlai a thilthleng leh an khawsak phung tamtak kan hriat phah ta a ni, chu mi in a a lantir chu History chu hun liam tawh nen a in zawm leh in kungkaih tlat thenhran theih lo a ni a, History chu hun liam tawh leh hun liamta a thilthleng ngei a ni tur ani. 

What is history and what is Historiography? PC Zosangpuii

HISTORY:  The English word’history’is derived from the Greek word’Istoria’meaning inquiry,research,exploration or information.In a broad snse history is a systematic account of the origin and development of humankind,a record of the unique events and movements in its life.It is an attempt to recapture however imperfectly,that which is,in a sense,lost forever.

  E.H.Carr in his work “What is History” says that,”history is a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts,an unending dialogue between the present and the past”.

  History is the result of the interplay of man with his environment and with his fellowmen.Man has always expressed himself in terms of certain basic needs such as food,clothing and shelter,social political organization,knowledge of his environment and transmission of such knowledge,self-expression,and religious and philosophical beliefs.Such activities together make up the universal cultue pattern.When man come to share  the same institutions and ways of life they may be said to possess the same ‘culture’.Fundamental differences between groups are essentially differences in their cultures.Cultures do not remain wholly static or isolated,but change over periods of time and interact with other cultures.Culture interact both in peace and war.When a people come to have a highly complex cultural pattern resting upon an increase social organization and exerting wide control over nature,they may be said to have achieved what is called ‘cicilization’.Civilization in all its varied aspects constitutes the subject matter of history.Such a cultural approach to history would make it a biography of civilization.

  History is the living past of man.It is the attempt made by man through centuries to reconstruct,describe and interpret his own past.In modern times,particularly from the period of Niebuhr and Ranke,it has come to mean the attempt to reconstruct the past in “a scholarly fashion,sticking to certain definite rules of establishing fact,interpreting evidence,dealing with source material,etc”.

HISTORIOGRAPHY:  Historiography literally means the art of writing history.It is the history of history,or the history of historical writings.Historiography tells the story of the successive stages of the evolution or development of historical writings.It has come to include the evolution of the ideas and techniques associated with the writing of history,and the changing attitudes towards the nature of history itself.Ultimately it comprises the study of the development of man’s sense for the past.

  There have been differences in the nature and quality as well as the quantity of historical literarture in the different ages and among different peoples.These differences have generally reflected changes in social life and beliefs and the presence or absence of a sense of history.The spirit that moved that moved the Greek and Roamn historians was different from that which inspired the Christian historians of the Middle Ages.The historical writngs of the Italian Renaissance,particularly that of Machiavelli,represented a harsh reaction to religious influence in history writing.The reaction reached its climax in the historians of the Enlightenment-Voltaire,Gibbon,Hume and Robertson.The pace of change has been greater ever since as the study of the past has increasingly come under the influence of manifold ideas.Historiography,as a special branch of history,traces these changes through the centuries.

  While history proper is the historian’s  reconstruction of the past,historiography,says Arthur Marwick,is really the history of historical thought-it is not only the theory or practice of history.By holding up models of how history has been written through the centuries,it guides the research scholar and the historian.

Eng nge History ni a, eng nge Historiography awmzia?

HISTORY : History hi Greek thumal ‘Istoria’ atanga lak ani a; zir chianna, chik taka chhui a hriat chhuah tuma zawnna tihna a ni. A zau zawng a sawi dawn chuan History chu thil zawng zawng mumal taka an lo chhuah dan leh he leia thil nung leh nung lo te kalphung, an chawrchhuahna leh awmdan zirchianna tiin a sawifiah theih a. Thil engkim, eng ang dinhmun tha leh tha lo ah pawh ding ta sela boral a a liam mai tur kan theihnghilh loh chu he History kan tih in a tum leh min zirtir chu a ni.

E.H. Carr a ziak “What is history?” tih ah chuan history chu historian (zir chianna kawnga mi thiam) leh thil kal dan leh thudik te in tawh tawnna leh inkungkaihna; tun hun leh hun liam tawh ten inzawmna leh inrelbawlna tawp neilo a thlun zawmtu tiin a sawi a ni.

Mihring leh a chheh vel a thil awm inzawmna leh inkhawih tawnna hi history kan tih chu ani. Mihring chuan ama nihna dik tak ei leh in, silh leh fen, hriatna leh rinna hmang ten a pho lang thin, chu chuan he khawvel  a a kalphung chu a siam a. Hnam ziarang leh kalphung te a in an vek siloh avang chuan hmun hran ah te awmin pawl hran hran ah te kan awm a; remna, muanna leh indona te pawn inzawmna an lo nei ani. Mihring in kalphung mumal tak leh fing taka leilung leh a chhunga thil awm chu a enkawl theih chuan hnam fing leh changkang ti a sawi an ni thin a. Chu changkanna hmelhmang tih danglama a awmna chuan History kan tih chu a duang ani.

History chu mihring te tan chuan hun liam tawh a kan khawsak dan tihna a ni mai a. Kum zabi tam tak liam ta atanga mihringin a hun liam tawha ama nun dan awmze nei taka a sawifiah theih nan a tih a ni. Niebuhr leh Ranke hunlai tang tawhin History chu mi lehkhathiam takin thil a chin thar, thil kalhmang leh awmdan dinchhuah a,thil reng reng lo chhuahna chhuichhuahna pawimawh tak tiin a awmzia an lo sawifiah thin ani.

HISTORIOGRAPHY : Historiography chu a ngial a ngan chuan History lama themthiamna tihna ani mai a. Thil hlui leh liam tawh te ziahna leh chik taka chhuina kan tih thumal ‘History’ zir chianna leh hriatthiamna a ni. Historgraphy chuan thil nung mawl te te atanga zawi zawia thil nung sang zawka than danglamna kawnga rahbi pawimawh tak tak chungchang a in dawt danin min hrilfiah a. A tawpah mihringin a hun kal tawh chu rem hre tak leh awmze nei takin a hriat fiah thiam tir na kawngah nasa takin a pui ta thin ani.

Hun leh hmun te leh a mihring inkar te a zirin nasa takin thil zirchianna kawnga kan hriatna, kan thiamna leh thiam dan kal hmang chu a in ang lo hlawm a. Heng danglamna te hian kan rinna leh nun dan te, history kan hriat na a awm leh awm loh nate chu a thlak danglam tlangpui a. Greek leh Roman history thiam leh ziak thin tute rilru khawih danglam a chawk phur thin thil leh Christian historian te ti phur tu te chu an in ang miah lo bawk a. Italian Rennaisance laia Machiavelli a’n thil zirchianna a ziah ah chuan history writing a sakhuana in thununna a neihna chu sawh khawkna nasa takin historian tam tak lakah a vawrtawp a thlen a. Hun kal tawh zirna chu ngaihdan chi hrang hrang hnuaia a awm takah chuan nasa takin danglamna hmuh tur a awm taa. Historiography chu history peng zinga bik leh pawimawh tak anih avangin heng danglamna thleng te hi kum zabi tam tak hnuah pawh a lang zel tih min entir ani.

History chu thil chhui zau mi ten hun kal tawh din that lehna anih lain Arthur Marwick chuan Historiography chu thil zirchianna leh chhuina lam hawi zawnga ngaihtuana leh rilru pekna, ngaihruatna a hisapna leh a tih a tih ringawt erawh ni silo tiin a lo sawi ani. Entawn tlak taka kum zabi tam tak liam tawh atanga history an lo ziah tawh dan kan chawikan hian historian te leh chik taka chhuina lama mi thiam te a kaihruai a ni.

Reference:

1. Shreedharan.E, “A textbook of historiography”. 

      Orient Blackswan 2009

2. Jayapalan.N, “Historiography”. 

Atlantic Publishers and Distribution (P) LTD. 

CHINESE HISTORIOGRAPHY Gospel Lalhmingchuanga Roll No - 1201 BA 538

From the earliest  time,the chinese have shown a marked inclination to historical writing.the nature of historical works also represent wide ranging interest.many works have been written by the chinese on different aspect of government,machinery,monasteries e.t.c.

Although the oldest surviving histories-those compiled in the classic of history-seem to date back only to the rise of zhou.the recording of chinese history dates back to the shang dynasty,the spring and autumn annals.the official chronicles of the states of ‘lu’ covering the period from 722 to 481 BCE,is among the earliest surviving chinese historical text to be arranged as an annal.The compilation of both is traditionally ascribed to confucius.The first systematic chinese historical texts,the records of the Grand historian was written by Sima Qian and his Father. The book covers the period from the time of yellow empire until the author’s own life.Sima Qian is often regarded as the father  of chinese Historiography.

The shitong was the first chinese work about Historiography.it was compiled by Liu Zhiji between 708 and 710 CE.Thw book describe the general pattern of the official dynastic histories with regard to the structure,method,arrangment,sequence,caption etc.Emperor Yingzong of song ordered Sima Guang and other.Scholars to begin compiling this universal history of china in 1065 and they presented it to his successor Shenzong in 1084.itr contain 294 volumes and about 3 million characters and narrates the history of china from 403 BCE to the beginning of the song in 959 CE chronologically.

*Li-Chi,The book of rites; In this book,the historian views of the of the past are expreesd in the most exalted terms.It contains many essays.This work was cmpiled during The Han Dynasty 202 BC to 220 AD.The ideal of a social order wherein people lived in’Grand Unity’ is described in many lucid passages. In this connection the early conception of histrory revealing social order with noble elements deserves to be noted.

*Ssu-Ma-Chien; In the reign of Wu-Ti,ssu-ma-chien the general among the chinese historians wrote his great history called the ‘Shih-Chi’ which mean  ‘Historical records’.Ssu-ma- chien was born in 145 BC.The shih-chi covers the history of china from the beginning of ssu-ma- chien’s own day.It includes not only significant political events but gives the biographies of important persons;chronological tables of battles,economic data,the calendar and so forth.

*The Tso-chuan; It is another kind of history.it is the form of a chronicle and events are listed year by year.The most reputed among such chronicle was the ‘Tyu-Chih-Tung-Chien’ by ssu-ma-kuang (1019-1086).This chronicle covered the history of chinese development from late in the Chou to beginning of the Sung period.this work illustrates the historical mindedness of the sung dynasty in a remarkable way.

*Tung-Chien-Chishipenna; Yuan-Chu prepared a history called ‘Tung-Chien-Chishipenna’ which means “root causes and effects of affairs recorded in the universal mirror’.There are many special histories on different aspects of chinese life.The chinese have produced alarge volume of local histories and gazetters.they are very statistical geography of china.China has alarge volume of inscription.These have been compiled and studied.They have also produced encyclopedia and anthologies which contain alarge fund of historical material.

The modern historical tradition of china is influenced by communist ideology.Economic analysis,condition of the peasant,toilers and workers,the living conditions of the masses,have all been assiduously unearthed under the new inspiration.In this way the chinese have done a wonderful thing in  the study of historiography.

                               CHINESE HISTORIOGRAPHY

Hun hmasa lamah chuan Chinese ho chuan historical suk thlek zawng zawng te an pholang a.chungte chu chinese tawng vek a ziak niin,sawrkar hnathawh dan kalphung leh puithiam ho kal dan phung te a tarlang a ni.

Chinese history record a ‘Lu’ chu awmze nei tak a ziah niin,chumi chuan BC 722 atanga 481 BC thleng ahuama,Chinese history awmze nei tak leh kim tak a ziak hmasa tu te chu Sima Qian leh apa anni a.chu lehkha bu chuan yellow empire atanga a ziak tu te  dam hun chhung thleng a huam ani.Historiography lam a chinese work hmasa ber chu Shitong ani a,chu lehkhabu chu Liu Zhiji in 708 leh 710 CE vela a lak khawm ani a,he lehkhabu hian lal chhungkua kalphung,an inzah dan,inthliar dan,lal indawt dan te,an chanchin te a sawi fiah ani.Scholars ho 1065 khan china history zawng zawng an lawrkhawm a,thuziak ah chuan thil hrang hrang 294 a awm a,thuziak maktaduai 3 leh 403 BCE atang a 959 CE thleng a history felfai takin a chuang a ni.

Li-Chi; He lehkhabu ah hian historian ten thil kal tawh an ngaihdan in ziahna  ani deuh ber a,thuziak a chanchin sawina  chi hrang hrang a awm.heng thuziak te hi Han dynasty hunlai a lawrkhawm anni a,heng hunlai mite hi an inpumkhat zia te an khawsak dan  kal hmang te a tarlang bawk a ni.

Ssu-ma-Chien; Wuti lal hunlai khan Ssu-Ma-Chien, chinese  historian ropui tak chuan ‘Shih-Chi’ tih alo ziak a,chu chu ‘vawn that/dah that’ tih na ani.Ssu-ma-chien chu BC 145 ah apiang a.Shih-chi  chuan Ssu-ma-Chien hunlai a huam a,politics lam chauh nilo in mi pawimawh bik chanchin te,indonna chi hrang hrang,a kum indawt dan te,ram in relbawl dan te,hun leh ni chhiar dan chanchin te,a sawi lang vek a ni.

The Tso-Chuan;He lehkhabu ah hian hun lo kal zel a thil lo thleng chhinchhiahna te leh kum te te a chhinchhiahna a awm a,alangsar ber chu Ssu- ma- Kuang ziah Tyu-Chih-Tung-Chien ani.Hei  hian Chou atang a sung hun lai thleng chanchin ahuam ani.He thuziak hian chinese history a hmasawnna,an chanchin,an inenkawl dante atarlang a ni.

Tung-Chien-Chishipenna; Tung-Chien-Chishipenna chu thil bul tanna/achhan leh khawvel mite hnenah nghawng aneih dan sawina leh tih lan a chhiahna ani a,he lehkhabu hi Yuan-Chu siam ani a.chinese ho chuan ram chhung ah ram mipui te chanchin leh ram chanchin ziahna te an siam a,heng a tang hian an chanchin leh an nun phung chipchiar tak in a hriattheih a,asawi fiah hle bawk ani.china ah chuan thuziak tam tak a awm a,thil chanchin tam tak chuanna te,thu ziak lawrkhawm te a lo awm a, chung te chu china history kan hriat theihna hnar alo ni.

Tunlai hun a chinese nunphung leh kalphung chu mipui rorel na,inrel bawlna kawng a suk thlek neih na ten a thunun in a chiah hneh tawh hle a,inrel bawlna thu ah te,ei leh bar te,lo nei mi te,thawkrim te,mipui te khawsak dan te,an taimak zia te chu hailan thar ani ta zel a.Heng kawngah hian chinese ho cu history ziahna kawngah hna ropui tak an thawk mek zel ani tih kan hre thei a ni.

* References:

1). Historiographyby N.Jayapala, Published by Atlantic publishers & distributors,7/22,Ansari Road,Darya Ganj.

2). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_historiography 

NATURE AND SCOPE OF HISTORY V. Lalawmpuii Roll no- 569

Nature of History:

There are certain characteristics for Nature of History which make it unique and also certain transient features which may change from time to time according to the Historian.

1.      History is a man’s attempt to describe and interpret the past.

2.      History is secular. It is concerned with temporal, mundane matters and not with spiritual efforts.

3.      Another important characteristics features of History is to be interest in the Past.

4.      History obliges people to think and to be responsible.

5.      History should be concerned not generally with the past but only with the realities of the past.

6.      History repeats itself.

7.      History cannot be static as it moves in time.

8.      According to Trevelyan there are three distinct functions of History, i.e the scientific, the imaginative and the literary.

9.      Croce and Collingwood have opined that History does not exist outside the historian’s mind.

10.  History is social memory. But it may not always be dependable.

Scope of History :

The scope of History has been variously viewed by Historians, Dr K. M Munshi defines the scope of History thus : ‘ The central purpose of History, must, therefore be investigate and unfold the values which age after age have inspired the inhabitants of a country to develop their collective will and to express it through the manifold activities of their life “.

            In the early days, History was considered to be nothing but a store- House of Legends, heroic account and folk- tales.  But as days passed by, the scope of History underwent significant changes.

The Arab used to say, “ History for kings and warriors, poetry for men and arithmetic for the shop keeper. But History is suppose to give a complete picture of everything  that has influence man directly or indirectly.

The scope of History is to enquire in to the origins of the past and to determine relationship and comparisons. It will try to discover the shapes and contours of the forces which are dynamic in society.

Generally, it is believed that History is concerned with man’s past achievements, wether the idea or the event in creation occurred 1 minute ago or a thousand years ago. The past is of different kind. It looks good for some people; and for others it is incredible. Some are proud about the past and talk about Golden ages. Some scholars assume that History had a very good start but by the time it reached the hands of a Historians for tereatment it gets deteriorated. The main scope of History will be the social life of man, his diurnal achievements,  his constitutional arrangements and his economic endeavours. Indeed they intimately affect the welfare of men in his day today life.

Thus the scope of History, in its restricted sense in nothing but a Political History, economic history, social History and so on. In its broad sense, it is History of the entire world touching all its facets. On the whole History mainly centres round the great events that have had indelible and indestructible mark upon mankind. In short, History is concern with the origin and development of all kinds.  

Reference :

Histiography                --          Jayapalan. N , Atlantic Publisher and Distributors, New Delhi. 

NATURE AND SCOPE OF HISTORY

V. Lalawmpuii

Roll no - 569

Nature of History :

History kalhmang leh ti danglam tu History sawifiahna chu tam tak a awm thei a, History kal hmang hi History ziaktu te a zirin a inthlak ve thei a ni.

1.      History chu hun kal tawh sawifiah tum na a ni.

2.      History chu sakhaw lam huam lo, khawvel hun tisa thil kaihhnawih a ni.

3.      History sawifiahna dang leh chu hunkaltawh ngaihvenna hi a ni.

4.      History chuan mawhphurhna la ngam leh ngaihtuah turin min phut a ni.

5.      History chu hun kaltawh kaihhnawih ni ringawt lo in hun kaltawh a thil thleng tak tak kaihhnawih a ni tur a ni.

6.      History chu amah leh amah a inchhui let fo thin.

7.      History chu hun kal anga inthlak a nih a vangin a ngai reng in a awm thei lo a ni.

8.      Trevelyan a chuan History thiltum chu hmun thum ah a then hrang a chung te chu, Finna lam thil te, Suangtuahna lam thil te leh Lehkhathiamna lam thil te a ni.

9.      Croce leh Collingwood  te ngahdan ah chuan History chu History ziaktute ngaihtuah na bak pawn lam ah chuan a nung lo a ni.

10.  History chu vantlang thil hriatreng na ani a, mahse a rintlak ber reng kher lo a ni.

Scope of History :

History huamchin hi History ziaktu ten an mitthla tlangpuia, Dr K.M Munshi chuan History huam chin chu ti hian a sawifiah a ni, “History tum ber chu chik takleh phur tak a he leilung a chengte a huhova awm a hmasawn in leh an nundan chi hrang hrang a lantir hi a ni”.

            Tunhma chuan History chu thil chhek khawlna- thawnthu ziahna, mi chhuanawm chanchin ziahna an ti thin. Hun a liam a History huamchin chu awmze nei in a inthlak a ni.

            Arab ho chuan, “History chu Lal leh Sipai indo mi tan ani a, hla chu mipa tan ani a, chhiarkawp chu sumdawng tut e tan” an ti thin.

            History chuan hmanlai thil nihna diktak pho chhuah leh a inlaichinna sawifiah te hi a tum a. Khawtlang  chakna leh thahrui pianzia leh hmelhmang phochhuah a tum a ni.

            A tlangpui in, History chuan mihring hun kaltawh a an thiltih minute 1 emaw kum sang liam ta ami lam hi a hawi ber a. Hunkaltawh chu chi hran hran in a awm theih ani. Mi thenkhat tan chuan an hun liam tawh chu a mawi in a tha em em a, mi thenkhat tan erawh chuan a thalo in a awihawm loh hial thin a ni. Mi thenkhat chuan an hun kal tawh chu an chapo pui bawk thin a ni. Mi thiamte chuan History  chuan bul tha tak in a tan a mahse History ziaktu te hnen a thlen hnu chuan chhiatlam a pan thin a ni an ti a ni.

            History huam chin chu engdang vak ni lo in, Politics lam History te, economic History te leh vantlang thil Social History leh a dang te an ni. A tawp nan tawi te in, History chu thil chi hrang hrang a bul hmasawnna lam kaihhnawih a ni. 

Generalization R Lalthlamuani R.No: 554

A generalisation is a linkage ofdisparate or unrelated facts in time or space, with each other. It is their grouping, their rational classification. Basically, a generalisation is a connection or relationship between facts, it is an 'inference' or, an explainatory relationship between phenomena. It is the result of the effort to provide an explanation and causation, motivation and effect or impact.

Generalisation are the means through which historians understand their facts, materials and try to provide their understanding of facts to others. Analysis and interpredtaion of events ect, is invariably done through generalisation.

Generalisation is involved as soon as we perform the two most elementary task: classify facts or data or phenomena and compare and contrast them, or seek out similarities and dissimilarities among them ,and make any inference from them.  

thus we make a generalisation when we put our facts into a series one after another.For example when we mention the caste or religion of  a leader we are making a generalisation. By connecting the caste and the leader or writer we are suggesting that his or her caste was an important part of his or her personality and , therefore, his or her political or literary work. Or even the mention of his or her age. More comprehensively , a generalisation occurs when we try to understand facts, or make connection between data, objects, events, records of the past through concepts and convey them to others through concepts.

Low level generalisation:A low level generalisation is made when we label a fact or event,classify it or periodise it.For example,when we say certain events occured in a particular year,decade or century.

Middle level generalisation:A Middle level generalisation is made when historian tries to find interconnnections among the different elements of the subject under study.Themes such as class consciousness,interest groups,capitalis,colonialism,nationalism and feudalism cannot be tested in a research work except through middle level generalisations,such as relating to workers in JAMSHEDPUR in the 1920s,growth of industrial capitalism in India in the 1930s,labour legislation in India in the 1930s.

Wide generalisations or systematic or schematising generalisations :These are made when historians reach out to the largest possible,significant connections or threads that tie a society together.These historians try to study all the economic,political,social and cultural and ecological linkages of a society in an entire era.

sources of generalisations include previous writings on any subject,theories of history,society,culture and politics such as those of Marx,Weber and Freud and careful collection of data and interpretations.

Generalisations guide us,they enable us to doubt facts as they appear or as they have been described by contemporaries or later writers;they suggest new possible understanding of old facts,they bring out fresh points and views for confirmation, refutation,further development , further qualification of existing views.

A generalisation helps define a student of History's theme whether in the caste of an essay, tutorial, research paper or a book. They enable him to take notes- whether from a book, and article or a primary source. Generalisation also enable him to find out which of his notes are significant and relevant to the theme or subject matter of his research.

Generalisation also enable a researcher to react to what he is reading. He can do so only if he is generalising while he is reading. Generalisations lead to debates among Historians, otherwise the only reaction to each others work among them would be to point out factual mistakes. Generalisation lead Historians to pose issues for discussion and debate and to start processes of fruitful discussion among them. 

Although there are many objections to generalisation, no writing is possible without using general terms and concepts. At every stages the historians have to make generalisations which provide the basis for understanding their facts and source material

TRANSLATION:

Generalisation chu thudik leh thil thleng a taka pawm tawh inzawm lo tak tak leh hrang hlak ni si te chu awmze nei tura remkhawm hi a ni. Thudik awmsa te inkar a inzawmna siam emaw nih phung mumal zawk neih tir hi a ni. Generalisation chu ka thil ziah a hrilhfiahna rintlak tak, thil lo thlen tir tu, thil lo awm chhan leh ch uthil in a a nghawng leh a rahchhuah thlenga chhawp chhuah tuma beihna hi a ni. 

Generalisation chu historian ten thudik awmsa te leh an hmanraw neih ang ang te an zirchian atanga an hriatthiam dan ang anga midang te hriatthiam tir ve tuma an beihna kawng hmang leh zaizia, an hmanraw chikhat a ni. Thil thleng hrang hrang te inawm na leh inlaichinna endik a chhuina(analysis) leh thil thleng te mahni ngaihdan a a awmzia sawifiahna,(interpretation) te hi generalisation hmanga tih a ni.

Generalisation chu facts leh data te thliar a khaikhin a chung facts leh data te chu a in anna leh in anloh na hmuh chhuah angaihdan pawmtlak haichhuah na kawngah hian a inrawlh nasa em em a ni.

Generalisation kan siam hian kan facts te kha a indawt dan angin, mumal takin awmze nei turin kan dah thin a ni. Entirnan: Hruaitu(Leader) pakhat chu a sakhua emaw cast kan sawi lan hian Generalisation kan siam a ni. Leader leh a cast kan sawi zawm hian kha leader kha a cast kha amah a bung pawimawh tak a ni a,emaw, a hnathawh a fawng chelh tu pawimawh tak a ni kan ti thei ang. Generalisation lo awmdan chu facts leh events kan zir a hriatthiam tumin emaw data(thudik hawmkhawm), objects(thil sakhat), events(thil thleng), past records te inkar a inzawmna kan ngaihdan tlangpui hmanga kan siam a, midang te tana kan hlan hian a ni.

Generalisation chu awlai deuh thei a a khirhkhan deuh thei bawk a, level hniam leh sang a then a ni a.

Low level: Low level Generalisation chu fact emaw event emaw kan thliar hrana, hunbi hmanga kan then hia nimai a, emaw mi, a hna, a chi emaw a awmna hmun emaw kan tarlan hian kan hmang thin.

Middle level: Middle level Generalisation chu historian in a subject chhui emaw a zirbing laia elements hrang hrang zinga inzawmna , inzulzui bik a hai chhuah hian hman a ni thin.

Wide generalisation or systematising or schematising generalisation: Hetiang generalisation ah hian historian ten an ban phak china a zau theih tawp a huam a, awmze nei taka rem khawmin society chu hlawm khat in an thil khawm thin a ni. Heng historian te hian society a economic, political, social culture leh ecological inzawmna te chu huap zau thei ang bera zir an tum a ni.

Generalisation hian min kaihruai a, thudik pawm sa te chu min rinhlelh tira, a chhan chu chung thusik pawm tawh te chu tunlai mi te emaw tun hnu ami te hrilhfiah na leh ngaihdan a ni a, thudik lo pawm tawh te atang chuan hrilhfiahna tharlam min zawnhmuh a, kan thudik te chu hriatthiam dan danglam zawk min kawh hmuh a, thlir dan tharlam leh pawmtur nghet zawk hmasawn na zau zawk, thlir dan leh pawn dan tur tling leh tha zawk min neih tir a ni.'

Generalidsation chuan student chu history a a thupui thlan(theme) chu Essay in a ni emaw

tutorial emaw research paper ah emaw lehkhabu a ni emaw a thupui hrilhfiahna ah chuan a pui a ni. A thupui hrilhfiahna chu lehkhabu atang ten article atang te leh primary source atang ten nots pawimawh a lak chhuah tir a, chu a note lakchhuah an chuan a thupui thlan atana tangkai tur emaw a research thupui in a sawi bik lai te a thurchhuahna kawngah chuan generalisation hian a pui a ni.

Generalisation hian researcher chu a thil chhiar ah chuan ngaihdan thar te a siam tir a. Historians zingah debates a cho chhuah tir aa thil chhiar atang khan generalisation a rawn siam a, debate leh sawi ho tur issue eng engemaw a chhawpchhuah tir thin a ni.

Generalisation hi hnialna leh kalhtu awm mahse ngaihdan tlangpui leh a tello chuan thuziah hi a famkim thei tak tak lo a ni.

REFERENCE:

Historialgraphy, Indira Gandhi National Open University